Module 5: Islam Flashcards
Module 5:1
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Bedouin
- Small nomadic tribes who moved around, grazing their animals, which included sheep, goats, and camels.
- very significant political and military force because of the possession of great physical strength and strategies, and their control of trade and communication.
Ka’ba
a temple containing a black stone thought to be God’s dwelling place. Muhammad’s roots of religion
Qu’ran
collection of Muhammad’s preaches written down by scribes which held much authority, revised for its sacred message and beauty of the Arabic language.
- the sacred book of Islam
hadith
collection of the sayings of or anecdotes about Muhammad
Sunna
the “trodden path”, refers to deeds and sayings of Muhammad that constitutes the obligatory example of Muslim life
Compare the power and societies of the northern and southern tribes.
Northern tribes: strongest warriors held much power and they led the tribal confederacy
Southern tribes: the priests held the power with religious and economic power
Name the Five Pillars of Faith.
- reciting a profession of faith in God and in Muhammad as God’s prophet
- praying 5 times daily
- fasting and praying during the month of Ramadan
- making a pilgrimmage to Mecca once in one’s lifetime
- contributing Alms to the poor
What does Islam mean?
surrender to god
What does Muslim mean?
a person who submits
In addition to the Pillars, list four teachings of Islam.
- Do not drink alcoholic beverages and don’t indulge in gambling
- Lending money & condemns taking advantage of high market demand by charging high prices (price gouging)
- Licentious behavior by both sexes is prohibited
- During Judgement Day, God would decide and draw a line between the saved and the “damned.”
Muhammad was initially a what? Where did he begin preaching his ideas from God’s revelations?
Muhammad was initially a merchant and wanted to preach God’s revelations to the people of Mecca.
Islams initially flourished in a _____
merchantile milieu
What was the main element which helped excel the spread of the faith of Muhammad?
Commerce and trade
Muslim _______’s products of _______ influenced the development of the Eastern and Western civilizations.
- scholars
- mathematics, philosophy, medicine
What became the economic and cultural center of Western Arabia?
Mecca
The _____ which Islam spread is one of the most amazing stories in world history.
Speed
Alongside trade and commerce, what were 2 other reasons for the fast growth of Islam?
- the religious want of new converts
- political weaknesses of other governments in the region
On the basis of wealth that trade generated, culture developed centrally in which areas?
Cordoba, Baghdad
Which peninsula covers a million miles, and is mostly filled with deserts?
Arabian Peninsula
Why did farming prevail in Southwestern mountain valleys?
Because of their ample rainfall
What was the basic social unit of the Bedouins and Arabs? What did they provide?
TRIBES
- provided protection, support, and were returned with members’ total loyalties
What did nomads in Arabia depend on when there were goods that they couldn’t produce?
agriculturally-productive communities
How did nomads in Arabia gain additional income?
- desert guides
- guards for caravans
- selling livestock, milk, hair, hides
Why did all Arabs respect the Shrine?
they served as neutral places for settling disputes between tribes
What was the goal of Muhammad?
To bind together different tribal groups into one unified, strong state
The earliest account of the life of Muhammad comes from ____
oral traditions passed down among followers
Who did Muhammad marry?
Khadija, a widow
In a cave in the hills near Mecca, what was Muhammad’s vision?
An angelic being who commanded him to preach the revelations that God would be sending him after
What did Muhammad do after his vision?
He urged the people to give up on their personal ideals and submit to the one God
How old was Muhammad when he received the vision?
He was 40 years old
caliph
The political and religious successors after Muhammad
Allah
oneness and omnipotence of one God
According to the Qu’ran, Prophet Muhammad descended from who?
Adam, the first man
According to the Qu’ran, who built the Ka’ba?
Prophet Abraham
Muslims believe they worship the same God as Jews and Christians. TRUE OR FALSE?
TRUE
Muhammad insisted that he doesn’t preach new messages but _____
is calling people back to the one true God and to return to the faith of Abraham
What is different about the Qu’ran compared to the New and Old Testament?
it is issued in God’s name.
What was different about Muslim punishments and Frankish Law in terms of punishments regarding sexual conduct?
Frankish Law punished prostitutes but not the clients. Muslim law punished both men and women fairly.
The Qur’an states that the holy writings of Jews and Christians represented divine revelation but claims that they also ____
tampered with the books of God
M5:2
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Umma
those whose primary identity and bond was a common religious faith, not a tribal tie
- “Community”
Diwan
an administrative organ adopted from Persians or Byzantines
- “Government”
Imam
leader in community prayer
Ulama
a group of religious “scholars” whom Sunnis trust to interpret the Qu’ran and the Sunna
Sharia
Muslim “law”, consists of social, political, religious, and criminal matters/offenses
Vizier
position that Abbasides adopted from the Persians
- the caliph’s “chief assistant”
Who were the major powers dividing the Middle East at the start of the Islamic expansion?
- Greek-Byzantine Empire at Constantinople, concentrated Christianity
- Persian-Sassanid Empire at Ctesiphole, concentrated Zoroastrianism
Describe the Islamic onslaught in the region.
Umar and Uthman launched a two-prolonged attack against the Byzantine and Sassanid Empires. Muslims conquered Egypt, then Alexandria in 642.
Identify several reasons for the remarkable spread of Islam.
- Arab’s military advantages and the political weaknesses of their opponents
- Europeans thought it was because of the “jihad”, or struggle.
- Muslims thought God supported their faith and helped Islam’s spread.
Sunnis
group of people who accepted Mu’awiya as a caliph
Shiites
supporters of Ali arguing that he was the successor of Muhammad because Ali was his cousin and son-in-law, and he was appointed leader of the community prayer.
What distinguishes the Sunnis from the Shiites?
- Both believed that Islam lies first in the Qu’ran and the Sunna.
- However, Sunnies believed that the ulama determined the interpretations of the Sunna, but the Shiites believed that imam interprets it
Sunnis believed that the _____ determined the interpretations of the Sunna.
ULAMA
Shiites believed that the _____ determined the interpretations of the Sunna.
IMAM
How did the Abbasid Caliphate differ from the Umayyad Caliphate?
- Abbasid Caliphate established basis of law and citizenship and was a more cosmopolitan and Islamic government. They focused mostly on expansion of knowledge.
- Umayyad Caliphate was a pleasure-loving, narrow, elite, and Arab-based government. They focused mostly on military expansion.
What was the impact of the Turks in the Islamic Civilization?
The Turks gave needed military strength to Islamic civilization, and had a big role in restoring Jerusalem, helping fight the crusades.
Turks later became ____ and ran against _____, converting _____ in Anatolia to Islams.
a. Sunnis
b. Shiites
c. Christians
What was the impact of Mongols in the Islamic civilization?
The Mongols invaded the lands and conquered, taking Baghdad. Killed a lot of the old leaders and brought new leadership to Islam. Known to be one of the most fierce groups in the Islamic civilization.
Hijra
Muhammad’s journey to Medina North
- “emigration”
What resulted in the growth of Muslim states?
the fighting of Byzantine and Sassanians, resulting in conflicts between near societies and the growth of Muslim states
What marked the collapse of the Sassanid Empire?
Muslims defeated Persia at Nihawand in 642.
Most of Muhammad’s new believers were ______
Bedouins
What became the center of Muslim control (a) over eastern Persia after the Muslims conquered ____ (b)?
a. city of Merv
b. Khurasan
What was the farthest Islamic penetration into Central Asia?
The clash of Muslim horsemen with a Chinese army at the Talas River in 751
Syria’s ________(a) attracted Muslims, and Muhammad saw the land as a potential means of support for the ______ (b).
a. economic prosperity
b. the poor who flooded to Medina
Neither the Byzantine and Sassanian Empires had
religious unity
What two important sites did Syria contain?
- Jerusalem, where Jesus and prophets mentioned in the Qu’ran lived
- Hebron, the burial place of Abraham
What is one of the greatest achievements of medieval Islam?
creation of the Islamic law
what did Umar do? (individually)
exert his authority over the Bedouin tribes
What did Uthman do? (individually)
- asserted the right of the caliph
- published the definite text of the Qu’ran, which showed his fear for the unity of the umma
- was hated for giving favors to his family of Mecca
Who was hailed as caliph immediately after Muhammad’s death at the time of crisis?
Abu Bakr
Abu Bakr’s election marked ____
the victory of the concept of a universal community
Mu’yiawa
- Utham’s cousin who refused to accept Ali as caliph
- founded the Umayyad Dynasty and shifted capital on Islam from Medina to Demasus in Syria
- laid foundation of an elaborate caliphal court by surrounding himself with symbols and ceremony
hajib
restricted access to the caliph
What pivotal moment led to Shitties and Sunnis?
Assasination of Ali, assumption of caliph by Mu’awiya
After finding Baghdad, the center of the caliph shifted back to _____
former Sassanid territories
What became the greatest city in Islam and one of the most cosmopolitan cities in the world?
Baghdad
What is an important Abbasid innovation which revolutionized its empire?
the use of slaves as soldiers
Why did Mu’awiya make an elaborate caliphal court?
It was designed to protect him from assassination.
Abu’ al-Abbas
Abbasid leader who led a rebellion against the Umayyads
al-Mansur
Abu’ al-Abbas’ successor who found the city of Baghdad and made it his capital
The Abbasids heavily borrowed culture from _____
Persians
Baghdad emerged as a flourishing commercial, artistic, and scientific center under whos rule?
Harun al-Rashid
al-Mu’tasim
caliph that acquired several thousand Turkish slaves who were converted to Islam and employed in military service
emir
Arab governers given responsibility for public order, maintenance of armies, and tax collects
qadis
judges who carried the judicial parts of the state
What was one of the first territories to break away from the Baghdad-centered caliphate?
Spain
What was blinding?
A practice adopted from the Byzantines, a way of rendering a ruler who was incapable of carrying out his duties
Who killed the last Abbasid caliph?
Mongols
M5:3
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Dhimmis
the third stratum, including Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians.
- considered the “protected people” for worshipping only one God.
What were the Dhimmis allowed to do that made them the “protected people”?
- allowed to practice their religions
- maintain their house of worship
- conduct business affairs as long as they gave unequivocal recognition to Muslim political supremacy and paid a small tax (quite inexplicable imo)
Dhows
ships
Harem
means “forbidden; the separate part of a Muslim household represented for wives, concubines, and female servants
Who was at the top of the Muslim society during the Umayyad period? (Ruling Elite)
caliph’s household and ruling Arab Muslims.
- descended from Bedouins and composed of warriors and veterans, governors, and townspeople
What was the second class in the Islamic society?
Converts to Islam
- had to attach themselves to one fo the Arab tribes in a subordinate capacity. Many resented this, as they believed they represented a culture superior to that of Arabs.
- usually became merchants, traders, teachers, doctors, artists, and interpreters
What united people of various ethnic backgrounds in Islam?
assimilation
When did the social positions of Dhimmis deteriorate/decrease? Why?
- The attacks of the Crusades and the Mongol invasions
- Muslims suspected the Dhimmis of collaborating with the enemies of Islam
Sheik
a tribal chief
What was the only criterion for honor according to the Qu’ran?
piety
What were the third and fourth classes in Islamic society?
Third: Dhimmis
Fourth: Slaves
What is the chapter titled “Bani Isra’il” in the Qur’an? What is its significance?
“The Children of Israel”
- gave special respect to the Jews because they were the “people of the Book.”
How were Jews and Christians treated under the Islamic government?
Jews and Christians were frequently given high positions because of their high education and knowledge.
- they were employed in Damascus and Baghdad. Violence to them was rarely practiced.
How were slaves treated in Islamic society?
- Slaves were treated more humanely in Islamic civilizations. They were often used as concubines and soldiers. They were like little maids and servants rather than slaves.
Slaveowners who freed their slaves were thought to _____
pave the way to heaven
Musa Ibn Nusayr
taken 300,000 prisoners of war and 30,000 virgins from Spain. Every soldier had a share of slaves from captured prisoners.
True or False. The concept of race was rarely important in Islamic culture.
True. Religion was far more important than race or gender.
Name notable examples of male slaves fighting as soldiers.
- Rulers of Tunisia formed a special corps of black military slaves
- Tulunid rulers of Egypt built an army of 24,000 white and 45,000 black slaves.
- Fatimid rulers of Egypt raised large black battalions
Describe the role of women in Islamic society.
Women were people of moral virtue, domesticity, and saintly ideals.
- The seclusion of women in a harem protected their virtue, and the harem was sometimes secured by castrated guards.
What elements of Islamic commerce and trade are capitalistic? Why?
Islam used profit-making enterprises, where many sought their profit through their own power, an example of capitalism. There was also no government interference in trade and commerce, and traders could make independent decisions.
Zanj
massive revolts of black slaves from East Africa, provoked by harsh labor conditions of Southwestern Persia.
- their revolts ended the Muslim experiment with plantation agriculture
How were slaves taken in the Muslim world?
Most slaves who were taken from non-Muslim peoples later converted, which often led to emancipation. The children of female slaves were later free and were defined as Muslim.
- provided a means to fill certain socioeconomic and military needs and assimilated outsiders
What do most hadith describe wives as?
the “mothers of the believers” - models of piety and righteousness whose every act illustrates commitment to promoting God’s order
Who is Aisha, and what is her significance?
She was the daughter of the first caliph, and played an important role in allying support for the movement of opposing Ali.
Veiling
probably a Byzantine or Persian origin.
- the head veil was the mark of freeborn urban women; wearing it distinguished them from slave women
What does the Sunni aphorism “There shall be no monkery in Islam” mean?
It signifies the importance of marriage in Muslim culture, and the Muslim belief that a sexually frustrated person is dangerous to the community. Marriage was seen as a safeguard of virtue, essential to the stability of the family and society.
______ ensured a long period of fertility.
Youthful marriages. It was essential that the bride was a virgin, and the husbands were 10-15 years older.
What does the statement “paradise is at the mother’s feet” mean?
Children were the wife’s special domain, and a mother exercised authority over her children and enjoyed their respect. The prestige of a young wife depended on their production of children, and a wife’s failure to have children was the main reasons for a man to divorce.
True or False; Muslim law did not permit divorce.
False, Muslim law permitted divorce.
- If a man intends to divorce his wife, he should avoid hasty action and not have intercourse with her for 3 months; it is hoped that they will reconcile during this time.
- “The lawful thing which God hates most is divorce”
Compare the Christian and Islamic view of sexual activity.
Christians viewed sexual activity as inherently shameful and only a cure for lust even within marriage. Islams maintain a healthy acceptance of sexual pleasure, and the Qu’ran permits a man to have 4 wives.
M5:5
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What according to the Quran is the Ka’bah? Who built it?
The Ka’bah is the “House of God” which Abraham built, and the focal point towards which Muslims turn in their worship 5 times a day.
What is the purpose of the hajj?
The hajj to Makkah was a once-in-a-lifetime obligation to those who permit it, or in the Qu’ran, “upon those who can make their way there.”
- Abraham established the rituals of the hajj, recalling events or practices in his life.
How did Muhammad instruct believers in the rituals of the hajj?
By his own practice, or approving the practices of his companions
Before setting out, what should a pilgrim do before the hajj?
- redress all wrongs, pay all debts, and have enough funds for his own journey and the maintenance of his family while he is away
- prepare himself for good conduct throughout
Until the 19th century, what did the hajj mean?
being part of a caravan
- Egyptian one (in Cairo), Iraqi one (Baghdad), & Syrian
What happened after the successful return of pilgrims to their families?
joyous celebrations and thanksgiving for their safe arrival
What two holy cities did most Westerners visit?
Makkah and Madinah
When did the pilgrimmage occur every year?
Between the 8th-13th days of Dhu al-Hijjah, the 12th month of the Muslim lunar calendar
Ihram
worn by men, a seamless garment made by two pieces of cloth. Worn by both Abraham and Muhammad.
- a symbol of purity and of the renunciation of evil and mundane matters. Also indicates the equality of all people in the eyes of God.
- Once put on, he keeps his garment until he completes the pilgrimmage
Talbiyah
primary invocation of the hajj. thunderous chants of the Talbiyah ring out.
Khalil Allah
Abraham, known as the “friend of God”
Tawaf
the seven-fold circling of the Ka’bah, with a prayer recited during each circuit
- the symbol of God’s oneness, implying that all human activity must have God as its center. symbolizes the unity of God and man
- they may kiss or touch the Black Stone. The prophet did this as well.
Where do pilgrims move towards on the first day of the hajj?
Mina, a small unhabited village east of Makkah
What is the significance of the wuquf?
During the second day, the 9th of Dhu-al-Hijjah, pilgrims leave Mina for the plain of ‘Araft for the wuquf, or “the standing.” The central rite of the hajj
- On this sacred spot, they reach the culmination of their religious lives as they feel the presence and closeness of God.
- Prophet is reported to have asked God to pardon the sins of pilgrims who stood at ‘Arafat, and his wish was granted
What is the significance of the seven pebbles?
- Before daybreak on the third day, the pilgrims move from Muzdalifah to Mina.
- they throw seven pebbles at each of these pillars, as they remember the story of Satan’s attempt to persuade Abraham to disregard God’s command to sacrifice his son.
- Symbolic of humans’ attempt to cast away evil and vice, the numebr seven symbolizes infinity.
What happens after the casting of the pebbles?
Most pilgrims sacrifice a goat, sheep, or another animal. This is associated with Abraham’s readiness to sacrifice his son in accordance with God’s wish.
- symbolizes the Muslim’s willingness to part with what is precious to him, and reminds of the spirit of Islam (the submission to God’s will)
What happens after the last major part of the hajj?
they are allowed to shed their ihram. On this day, Muslims around the world celebrate this by performing individual, identical sacrifices in a worldwide celebration, “the Festival of Sacrifice.”
- symbol of humility
What do pilgrims do after completing the Tawaf?
pilgrims pray, preferably at the Station of Abraham, where Abraham stood while he built the Ka’bah. They drink the water of Zamzam here.
What is “the running”?
final rite; the s’ay “the running”, which shows a reenactment of a memorable episode in the life of Hagar, who was taken into what the Qu’ran calls the “uncultivable valley” of Makkah.
- commemorates Hagar’s search for water to quench Ishmael’s thirst. She ran back and forth seven times between two rocky hillocks, al-Safa and al-Marwah, until she found the sacred water known as Zamzam.
What is the “lesser pilgrimmage”?
The umrah, the “lesser pilgrimage,” was sanctioned by the Qu’ran and was performed by the Prophet.
- takes place only in Makkah and can be performed any time of the year. After/before going to Makkah, pilgrims also visit the Prophet’s Mosque in Madinah, the second holiest city in Islam. Here, the Prophet lies buried in a simple grave.
- symbolizes veneration for the unique sanctity of Makkah
What are the feeling of pilgrims as they return?
a sense of awe and serenity
- awe for their experience at ‘Arafat, where they felt closest to God
- serenity for having shed their sins on that plain
- they are born with a spirit caring for others and fulfilled God’s ancient injunction to humankind to take the pilgrimage. “There is no reward for a pious pilgrimage but Paradise.”
Name the “steps” of the hajj:
- redress all wrongs, pay all debts, have enough funds (preparation
- wear the ihram
- visit Mina (1st day)
- Arafat/wuquf “the standing (2nd day)
- Muzdalifah to pray + seven pebbles at Mina (3rd day)
- sacrifice a goat/sheep/other animal “the Festival of Sacrifice”
- visit Makkah to perform the tawaf, the seven-fold circling of the Ka’bah
- pray at the Station of Abraham
- the “running”
- final tawaf around the Ka’bah to farewell the Holy City
- return to Mina (12/13th day of Dhu al–Hijjah)
M5:4
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TRUE OR FAlSE: The Qu’ran does NOT have any prohibitions on trade with Christians.
True; the Qu’ran has no prohibition with trade against Christians or non-believers. In fact, the Jews of Cairo and the Armenians were prominent in merchantile networks.
____ served as the main commercial routes of the Islamic world.
Waterways
What was a major Mediterranean entrepot for intercontinental trade?
Cairo
sakk
an order to a banker to pay money held on account to a third party; practice can be traced to Roman Palestine
bill of exchange
A written order from one person to another to pay a specified sum of money to a designated person or party
What was one important byproduct of the extensive trade through Muslim lands?
spread of useful plants
- cotton, sugarcane, and rice spread
- the value of this trade contributed to the prosperity of the Abbasid era
Assess the role of trade in the Islamic Empire.
Trade and commerce played an important role in the early Islamic world. Large trade networks spanned much of the globe including faraway places like China, Africa, and Europe. Islamic leaders used taxes from wealthy merchants to build and maintain public works such as schools, hospitals, dams, and bridges.
_____ provided wealth that made possible culture in the cities. _____ helped foster achievements in the arts and sciences.
- Long-distance trade
- Education
Harun al-Rashid
presided over a glamorous court, inviting writers, dancers, musicians, poets, and artists to live in Baghdad, nad is reputed to have rewarded one signer with 100,000 silver pieces for one song.
The Thousand and One Nights
the attempt of a new bride, Scheherazade to keep her husband, Shahyar, legendary king of Samarkand, from killing her thinking that she will be unfaithful. She entertains him with one tale a night for 1,001 nights.
What city is described as the “ornament of the world”?
Cordoba
What were the madrasas? What role did it serve in Islamic civilizaton?
Madrasas were schools for the study of Muslim law and religion. They were significant because schools were known as “urban phenomenas.”
Learning in Islam depended mainly on _____
memorization
A boy began his education by what?
Memorizing the Qu’ran
What was the main emphasis for students?
the oral transmission of knowledge
Who was Ibn Battuta?
a man who journeyed through the Islamic world, and through him a scribe appointed by the sultan came a travel book. He became a judge and was chosen as leader in the diplomatic mission to China in 1341.
Trace the routes of Ibn Battuta’s travels.
He went to western Africa, around the coast to Northern Africa, then to southern Eurasia, and then traveled straight to eastern Asia.
How did a common Muslim culture facilitate Ibn Battuta’s travels?
Muslim culture placed great emphasis on knowledge and because of this, Ibn Battuta had a knowledge-seeking nature and was able to speak many languages when the occasion arose.
Name the similarities and cultural cohesion among the educated living in scattered localities. (OPEN ENDED)
Student in all 3 cultures had to master a sacred language. In all three cultures, education rested heavily on the study of basic religious, legal, or philosophical texts; the Old and New Testaments or the Justinian Code in Europe; Confucian classics and commentaries in China; the Qu’ran, hadith, and legal texts in the Muslim world. Also, all three cultures had memorization as a big role in acquisition and transmission of knowledge.
What was more important than religion in fostering cultural change?
spread of the Arabic language
Why is the year 800-1300 considered to be one of the most brilliant periods in the world’s history by modern scholars?
the result of Muslim creativity and vitality
List 5 intellectual achievements of Islamic society.
- The quick spread of the Arabic language, making it the official language of the state of Islam and in former Byzantine and Sassanid territories
- They added starch to the surfaces of the paper the Chinese made to fill the pores and make it smoother.
- Al-Khwarizmi was a person who studied mathematics. His textbook of algebra was the first to describe algebra as “transposing of negative terms in an equation to the opposite side.”
- Baghdad physician al-Razi was the first physician to clinically differentiate between the two diseases measles and smallpox.
- Al-Kindi became the first Muslim think to attempt at combining Greek philosophy with the religious views of the Qur’an
List 5 intellectual achievements of Islamic society.
- The quick spread of the Arabic language, making it the official language of the state of Islam and in former Byzantine and Sassanid territories
- They added starch to the surfaces of the paper the Chinese made to fill the pores and make it smoother.
- Al-Khwarizmi was a person who studied mathematics. His textbook of algebra was the first to describe algebra as “transposing of negative terms in an equation to the opposite side.”
- Baghdad physician al-Razi was the first physician to clinically differentiate between the two diseases measles and smallpox.
- Al-Kindi became the first Muslim thinker to attempt at combining Greek philosophy with the religious views of the Qur’an
Why do Baghdad and Cordoba stand out as the “finest examples of cosmopolitan Muslim civilization” respectively?
Baghdad: had a wide variety of people. Many people from different groups from all over the world filled the streets of Baghdad
Cordoba: competed with Baghdad for the cultural leadership of the Islamic world; the city had an abundant supply of water and many buildings along the streets
Sufism
- a mystical tradition developed in Islam mainly because of the reaction to materialism and worldliness of the later Umayyad regime
- Sufis sought a personal union with God, with divine love and knowledge through intuition rather than through rational deduction and study of the shari’a.
- quest for personal union or relationship with God
shaykhs
groups of Sufis gathered around these prominent leaders, and members of these groups were called dervishes.
Ibn al’ Arabi
traveled widely in Spain, North Africa, and Arabia seeking masters of Sufism. In Mecca, he received a “divine commandment” to begin his work “The Meccan Revelation.” He made one of the greatest works of Sufism.
In the Christian West, Islam had the greatest cultural impact on _____ in_____.
Andalusia in southern Spain
Mozorabs
Christians who adopted some Arabian customs but did not convert
Abd al-Jabbar
a prominent theologian and judge of Teheran, who argued that Christians had rejected Jesus’s teachings, and failed to observe the ritual purity of prayer
What did early Muslims think of Western Civilization?
The Muslims clashed a lot with the Christians. Beginning with the Mozarabs, the two sides clashed, believing that the existence of Mozarabs would confuse each other’s doctrines. They had many close-following conflicts after the banning of the Mozarabs, though the Muslims were a bit partial to Jesus.
