Module 2/3: Archeology & The Middle East Flashcards
Explain the relationship of proximity to complexity in human societies.
New resources let people live in closer proximities, but also call for complexities to grow, as people need to control their growing complex society.
Earliest writing in Mesopotamia
indentations made on soft clay and tablets which hardened
Earliest writing in Egypt
ink on papyrus sheets, made from a plant grown in Egypt
Earliest writing in China
inscriptions on bones and turtle shells
Import of the word “history”
From the Greek word “historia” and called by Herodotus in the fifth century BCE. Closely tied with writing, and thus describes the time period associated with written records
Citizen meaning
people from a town or a larger political unit, such as an empire
Assess the statement: “However they are established, states coerce people through violence or the threat of violence, and develop permanent armies for this purpose.”
The states coerce people to keep their resources safe from the other towns and builds armies, taxes, and more to keep those resources, as well as try to gain them from other towns.
Assess the statement: “However they are established, states coerce people through violence or the threat of violence, and develop permanent armies for this purpose.”
The states coerce people to keep their resources safe from the other towns and build armies, taxes, and more to keep those resources, as well as try to gain them from other towns.
“Written laws and traditions generally create more elaborate social hierarchies.” Why?
Written laws and traditions create division of people between elite groups with more favor under the written law, compared to the common people. These give power to certain groups and establish laws and norms to certain groups.
Distinguish the emphases in the two names ascribed to the process where in the fourth millennium BC, Neolithic villages expanded into cities: “the birth of civilization” or “the growth of the state”
- “the birth of civilization” refers to the birth of cities which depended on food produced by surrounding land, and people carrying other tasks in the city, creating a more complex civilization.
- “the growth of the state” refers to the development of the civilization with divisions of labor, law enforcements, hierarchies, and more.
What factors made urban life possible in Mesopotamia?
Agriculture, religion, irrigation system, gods, laws
Irrigation
supply of water to land or crops for growth
polytheism
belief in or worship of more than one god
cuneiform
Sumerian form of writing; the term describes the wedge-shaped marks made by a stylus.
pictograph
a symbol for a word or phrase, but could not describe abstract ideas
ideogram
signs that represented ideas
Name some of the steps that led to invention of writing
Use clay to keep as counters to record keeping. They developed them into scribes that could have meaning. Followed by pictographs and ideograms.
What is the significance of King Shulgi’s quote?
It signifies how anybody who knew how to write is superior.
Compare the elites, clients, and slaves.
The elites made alliances with other powers, and held extensive tracts of land. The clients worked on the lands and depended on the land, and the slaves were treated like a physical power.
What were Hammurabi’s goals? How did he achieve them?
To establish law and justice in the language of the land, thereby promoting the welfare of the people
What were two characteristics of Hammurabi’s code?
- they called for a variety of punishments for breaking the law
- it favored the elites and higher social classes
What were the primary concerns of Hammurabi’s code?
slander, slavery, planned marriages, theft
What does Enheduana praise about Inanna?
Enheduana praises Inanna’s divinity. The author of the pyramid ascribes the god-king Unas an indestructible spirit.
How did the social position shape their relationship to their gods? What differences do you see in their relationships to the gods in the two works?
Their social position lets them closer to god. Enheduana praises the gods while Unas ascribes them.
What remained the basic way of life for most of human history according to the authors?
Foraging was the basic way of life for most of human history.
Agricultural revolution
the change where humans began to plant seeds and gather crops, raise certain animals and selectively breed plants and animals to be useful for humans.
How is horticulture distinguished from agriculture?
- While agriculture deals with all aspects of crop cultivation, horticulture deals with growing plants done by hand tools and by human power.
Why do some prehistorians believe women were the first to cultivate crops?
Women were primarily responsible for gathering plant production, and archeologists believe that they were also responsible for planting the seeds.
Codependent domestication
humans domesticated crops, but crops also “domesticated” humans so that they spend hours spreading particular crops around the world.
Describe the effects of pastoralism on human development.
Pastoralism, or the herding of flocks of animals based on the herding and raising livestock, let humans know that animal manure can increase crop yields.
How did the domestication of large animals impact human ways of life?
In Asia and North America, large animals such as cattle and water buffalo were domesticated. Then, animals increased their physical powers to carry out their tasks.
- impacted when societies encountered where human labor was the only source of power
Why is the term “agricultural revolution misleading? Why is the term appropiate?
- The term “agricultural revolution” may be misleading as the word ‘revolution’ implies that it happened in a quick process, but the revolution took a long amount of time.
- The term is appropiate because it did in fact revolutionize the ways humans cultivated their plants and food, or in simple terms, their agriculture.
Why is the Iceman so significant? Provide examples of the contributions Oetzi has made in understanding Neolithic culture.
- The Iceman is significant because it is the oldest and best-preserved and unique human corpse found.
- It wears outfits, and carries tools and weapons that were used to examine many parts of the living in the Neolithic culture.
How was the Iceman preserved for more than 50 centuries?
It was sealed after being mummified. It was also sealed in a glacier, and as it was exposed to old winds and snowfalls, it froze on the ground and hardened the mummified body.
Why was the extraction of the Iceman NOT an example of archeological research?
The body was damaged with many body parts missing, supporting that it was not initially carved for/with archeological research.
What were some of the Iceman’s adornments? How did they differ from modern adornments?
The Iceman had tattoos over his body, but it was covered instead of being shown. This supports that the tattoos were not to be shown to be seen publicly, but were rather a symbol for himself and what he believes in/rituals.
What do the artifacts of the Iceman demonstrate about his knowledge of the environment?
The Iceman realized that the environment he lives in was cold, and he must get adjusted to it through his clothing and fire-making tools, etc.
What evidence did the discovery provide that the Iceman was no wimp even though he was small in stature?
He always carries weapons and axes. Research also concluded that he had lots of leftover food in his stomach, inferring that he was a successful hunter.
What does the Iceman reveal about the society in which he lived?
The Iceman shows how the Neolithic society lived with farms, hunters, tracking, fishing, and all while being semi-nomads, as archeologists had shown through the Iceman’s items.
What political controversies surrounded the Iceman?
Archeologists and researchers were initially unsure if they should be allowed to touch the ancient body, during the extraction of the body and the research itself.
Explain how archeologists knew the Iceman was an “expert” at exploiting the natural resources around him.
He utilized tools that were excellently suitable to his environment.
What theories did archeologists have in 1993 regarding the Iceman’s identity and demise?
They hypothesized that the Iceman was either a shephard or a hunter, and his demise (death) was from a fall.
How does the Iceman illustrate the value of archeology?
He reveals many small aspects that can be very crucial to carve information that can lead to big conclusions.
What is the most current theory regarding the iceman’s death.
He died lying on his left side, with his left hand extented. He was killed by an attack in villaging towns while the Iceman crossed a mountain.
- arrow
Explain how social hierarchies developed.
The division of labor that plow agriculture allowed the creation of hierarchies to develop over time.
What evidence is there Catal Huyuk engaged in trade and specialized labor?
- Citizens lived in mud-brick houses whose walls were covered in with plastic and interiors were kept clean
- houses were built next to each other with no gaps in between, and rooftops served as places of congregation
- People grew crops and territories as well as raised animals to expand trade
- they gathered obsidian, and traded and exchanged with groups far away
What examples of cultural diffusion does the book give in the Neolithic Age?
they carried ideas by travelling on foot, boats, wagons, or carts.
- Knowledge about weather and the seasons, and they developed calendars with this knowledge of astronomy
- People mounded earth stones to help predict movements of the moon and stars
Why did pottery, textiles, and metal working emerge as Neolithic industries?
- Metals served as important trades, including copper, ores, obsidian, and bronze. It can be shaped into tools, jewelry, ornaments, and they had a method called smolding.
- Pottery and textiles were used for aesthetics, and also for trading amongst the elites.
Explain the relationship between land and wealth.
more land = more wealth
- more labor ownership
- material influence
- food surplus
How and why did Neolithic cultures develop an early kind of applied science?
they made calendars using the knowledge they had with astronomy.
How did cities like Catal Huyuk differ from Neolithic villages?
It features many aspects that other Neolithic villages did not have.
- individual authority from worshipping gods (priests, shamans)
- social hierarchy development
- patriarchy (gender inequality)
- technologies & sciences
- manufacturing of many items
How did the rhythms of agriculture and the patterns of exchange shape religious beliefs and practices?
Fertility of the land, animals, and people was essential for corp raisers and pastoralists. Priests developed more elaborate rituals designed to assure fertility, where the gods were given something in exchange for fertility.
How did the Sumerians believe in the gods and human beings?
The Sumerians believed in and respected all gods, and put them to be superior (SUPREME POWER) over humans, who were viewed as weak.
What were the Sumerian views of human life? Where do human beings fit into the cosmic world?
- They believed that human form depended solely on god’s decision.
- Human beings can never become authentic gods. Humans lives are limited because the gods decided that.
In the end, did Gilgamesh achieve immortality?
Yes
What did Herodotus mean when he said, “Egypt was the gift of the Nile?”
The Nile flooded once a year for several months, which brought fertile soil and moisture necessary for farming. The Nile floods were relatively gentle and it was a creative and comforting force.
Describe the impact of the Nile River on the development of the Egyptian civilization.
Through the Nile, Egyptians produced an annual agricultural surplus, and sustained a growing and prosperous population.
What was the Book of the Dead? What can be learned from it?
Made during the New Kingdom. It developed more complex ideas about the afterlife, as it recorded funerary manuscripts, and explained the process of a soul to become a part of the afterlife. The soul left the body to become part of the divine after death and was back to life when the Nile flooded.
What contributions did the Hyksos make to Egyptian civilization?
The Hyksos were the “rulers of the uplands,” and they brought methods of making bronze, and introduced Egypt to the Bronze Age. They also led Egypt to making more warfare materials, with bows and charriots.
- BRONZE
Who was Akhenaton and why is he significant?
Akhenaton was the son of Amenhou II, and completely changed the religious beliefs in Egyptian culture (negatively). He changed religious beliefs that the people should follow, instead of following the practical worships that they had ritually held. (Aten, instead of Ra/Amon)
Why might it have been difficult for Egyptians to accept a female ruler?
Men were considered superior to women before some women became pharaohs, and gender rights were equaled in the Egyptian culture.
What opportunities do hereditary monarchies such as that of ancient Egypt provide for women? How does this fit with gender hierarchies in which men are considered superior?
- Women that were sisters of pharaohs often became their wife. This wife was seen as the “Great Royal Wife,” or the principal queen.
- Women were allowed to rule in their own from familial connections. There have been 4 Egyptian pharaohs due to this.
Who were the Hittites?
A kingdom that expanded Southward and expanded their own empire and came in contact with the Egyptian lands. Many battles broke out, but were concluded by a peace treaty between the leaders of the respective kingdoms.
What was the most significant contribution of the Hittites to the development of civilization in the region?
They were forerunners of the Iron Age and were manufacturing iron artifacts very early.
Who was Ramses II? How could you describe him as a leader?
He was the Egyptian Pharoah who was remembered for…
- his exploits in battles
- having a profound agricultural legacy
- creating a peace treaty with the Hittites.
- leading Egypt from collapse against sea-faring people and their attacks
Who were the Kushites?
The Kush civilization was known for their extensive trade routes that provided ivory and other luxury goods. They were also known for conquering Egypt, and having an active influence of Egyptian culture.
Who were the Phoenicians?
The Phoenicians means “Purple people” in Greek, and they gave merchants valuable products of purple and blue textiles, which were shipped as products of ore or glass items.
In what period were the Great Pyramids built?
The Old Kingdom
What led to the decline of the Middle Kingdom?
The power of priests and nobles weakened the pharaoh’s rule.
When did the New Kingdom decline? Why?
Invasions from Libya, Asia Minor, in about 1090 BCE
Where was the Middle Kingdom capital?
Thebes
Atum
creator god
Hathor
love & joy goddess
Anubis
god of the dead
Ra / Shamash
Sun god
Seth
god of chaos
Aten
a form of the sun god Ra
What was the government system of the Old Kingdom?
The pharaohs held supreme power. Royal officials handled the details of the government.
What led to the decline of the Old Kingdom? When?
Nobles in distant areas of Egypt challenged the power of pharoahs, resulting in a 200-year civil war. (2181 BCE)
What was the government system of the Middle Kingdom?
A strong dynasty ruled Egypt from Thebes
Achievements of the Middle Kingdom
Culture and trade flourished, letting traders travel across Nubia, Palesitne, Syria, and Crete.
Government of the New Kingdom
The pharaohs demanded tribute from conquered peoples.
Achievements of the New Kingdom
The pharaohs build an empire, conquering land eastward to the Euphrates River in Mesopotamia and southward in Africa.
What was the Mastaba?
Rectangular structure built inside Egyptian tombs, the “gateway to the afterlife”
How did the architects attempt to protect the contents of the tomb?
Pyramids were filled with fake dorms, chambers, and false passageways to confuse potential tomb robbers.
What does hieroglyphs mean?
a picture of a symbol which represents a particular meaning, in Egyptian culture
What is the difference between a pictograph and a phonogram?
- Pictograph represents a word/symbol
- Phonogram represents a vocal sound
What was hieratic used for?
religious texts
What was demotic used for?
all other texts except religious texts or inscriptions on monuments
What was hieroglyphics used for?
inscriptions on monuments
How did the Rossetta Stone solve the riddle of hieroglyphics?
it helped to discover the “alphabets” of the Egyptian hieroglyphics and symbols.
What is a definition/example of the Agricultural Revolution
codependent domestication
Excavation
the systematic unearthing of ancient ruins by digging out the soil
Define lithic
relating to stone
Define midden
A dunghill/dump
Define potsherd
broken piece of ceramatic material
Stratigraphy
branch of geology with relative positions of strata
What are the steps to digging a site?
- Map the site
- Explatoray excavation
- Excavate
- Record all artifacts
- Clean, repair, preserve
- ship to lab
- Analyze dates, interpret
- Synthesize data
What does the Neolithic Era mean?
New Stone Age
What was significant about the Neolithic Era?
- first permanent human settlements
- stone tools
- pottery
Methods of classifying finds
- material which they are made
- form they possess
- the technique used in making
- the function they served
- a type of decoration
What is the first tower/symbol of the Bible? What did it do?
Tower of Babel; watched over gods, birth of calendars
What does the saying “Knowledge is power” mean?
In the Neolithic Era, having vast knowledge gave more power and placed you in a higher elite social class. For example, if you were able to read, write, or have knowledge of astrology, you could be closer to the kings at the time, earning you a higher place in the social hierarchy.
Who are the “founding fathers” of the Mesopotamian civilization?
Sumerians
Ka
life force
Ba
soul
Maat
life as it should be
Akh
spirit
Who was Piye?
Piye was the first black pharoahs, and he ruled over his own kingdom in Nubia before attempting to invade Lower Egypt to declare himself as the ruler.
Why did Piye invade Lower Egypt?
He believed that the only way to save Egypt from itself was to invade it.
What did Piye do after he was victorious?
He loaded up his army and material, and sailed southward to his home in Nubia, never to return to Egypt again.
Who has more pyramids. Sudan or Egypt?
SUDAN
What factors contributed to the neglect of Nubian history?
- Statues were broken by rivals, they were conquered and destroyed
- modern political issues in the country of Sudan
- There was no racism in the ancient world, and people didn’t realize that Piye was dark-skinned.
- their embracement of Egypt’s cultural and spiritual customs (burial styles, pyramid buildings)
- cult-like fascination of Egypt’s achievements
What did Egyptians depend on Nubia for?
Egyptians depended on Nubia’s gold mines to bankroll their dominance of western Asia.
How did acculturation affect the Nubians?
Elite Nubians began to adopt..
- Egyptian gods (Amun)
- Egytian language
- adopting burial styles
- pyramid building
Lord of the Two Lands
A Pharoah that united lower and upper Egypt together; depicted wearing two cobras signifying his legitimacy
Who were the Assyrians?
A group to the East of the Egyptians, who marched into Judah in present-day Israel
- The Assyrians failed to kill the prince (son of the pharoah Piye)
- They retreated, and their emperor, Sennacherib, abandoned the siege and went back to his kingdom without his army
What was the prince of Nubia later nicknamed as by the Assyrians?
the one accursed by all the great gods
Explain the importance of Taharqua
- he built monuments bearing his image/name
- he was depicted as a supplicant to gods
- built pillars around the Karnak temple, added to Temple of Amun, two temples built in the Nubian city of Napata
- had a strong army
Who was Esarhaddon? What did he do? What was his impact on Egypt?
- He was an Assyrian king who fought against Taharqa and lost the first time, but won the second.
- After his victory he killed the villagers and “erected piles of their heads.”
- He was the rare kings who was able to humiliate and defeat Taharqua.
What similarities existed between the Nile valley and Sumer?
- social structures were similar (priests, merchants/manufacturers, laborers/slaves)
- means of subsistence (farming, manufacturing, irrigation, trades)
What differences existed between the Nile valley and Sumer?
- Religion (Muslim vs polytheism)
- rule (monarchy vs theocracy/gods)
- accomplishments (news kills & technologies, ship building vs wheels, plow, writing, & ceuniform)
- decline (loss of millitary power, invasions by Elamites)
Who owns the body of the Iceman? Where is the body now?
- Italy
- Austria
____ exposed ____ in Southern Jordan.
Flooding, copper
What led to permanent settlements in the Neolithic era?
scarcity of food
Describe Catal Huyuk.
- modern-day Turkey
- settlement from 7250-6150 BCE
- 8,000 inhabitants
- manufacturing of pots, baskets, textiles, carpets, beads, leather
Paleolithic Era
- Old Stone Age
- Hunger and gatherers, simple tools, weapons
- Nomadic
- Foraging
Write the process that occurs after food surplus occurs.
- Population increases
- different jobs
- social class
- creates wealth and control
Ghassoulians
- took Western civilizations above the Stone age
- two trade systems; Egyptians and Sumarians
What was the liquid gold of the Middle East?
Olive Oil
What did plow agriculture heighten?
patriarchy, food production/surplus
What was the white gold of prehistory?
Salt - could be used to store food and used when moving items for trade
Describe the religion of the Ghassoulians.
- Star of Ghassul: choosing peace without using slaves or millitaries, unitied the society together
- showed social class and what their powers are
What was the world’s first city?
Uruk - king was gilgamesh
What was the world’s first epic poem?
the Epic of Gilgamesh
Sargon
a king of a region north of Sumer, who conquered a number of Sumerian cities.
What was the symbol for Sargon’s triumph?
the city of Akkad
Who was the priestess of the city of Ur?
Enheduana, the daughter of Sargon
Who ruled Babylon? What was good about the city?
Hammurabi. It dominated trade on both the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.
Describe Osiris and Isis.
Osiris died every year and was brought back to life by his wife Isis when the Nile flooded.
Where did intentional plant cropping first develop?
the Fertile Crescent
How was bronze made from copper?
Before the Bronze Age, copper dominated as the metal for jewels and ornaments. As people learned that copper can be mixed with other metals, they made bronze from it.
Who was the god of law and justice?
Shamash
Who was a female pharoah who promoted trade and wealth for herself?
Hatshepsut
