Midterm Vocab Flashcards
behaviorism
focus on observing and controlling behavior
biopsychology
study of how biology influences behavior
cognitive psychology
study of cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to experiences and actions
empirical method
method for acquiring knowledge based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities
functionalism
focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment
humanism
perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans
introspection
process by which someone examines their own conscious experience in an attempt to break it into its component parts
psychoanalytic theory
focus on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior
psychology
scientific study of the mind and behavior
structuralism
understanding the conscious experience through introspection
clinical or case study
observational research study focusing on one or a few people
confirmation bias
tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs
confounding variable
unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor causes changes in both variables
control group
serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study—by holding such factors constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is the only difference between groups
correlation
relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does
correlation coefficient
number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r
cross-sectional research
compares multiple segments of a population at a single time
debriefing
when an experiment involved deception, participants are told complete and truthful information about the experiment at its conclusion
dependent variable
variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had
double-blind study
experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments
empirical
grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing
experimental group
group designed to answer the research question; experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance
hypothesis
(plural: hypotheses) tentative and testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables
illusory correlation
seeing relationships between two things when in reality no such relationship exists
independent variable
variable that is influenced or controlled by the experimenter; in a sound experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control group
inductive reasoning
conclusions are drawn from observations
longitudinal research
studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time
naturalistic observation
observation of behavior in its natural setting
negative correlation
two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller; a negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation
operational definition
description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables
population
overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in
positive correlation
two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller
random assignment
method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group
random sample
subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
reliability
consistency and reproducibility of a given result
replicate
repeating an experiment using different samples to determine the research’s reliability
sample
subset of individuals selected from the larger population
statistical analysis
determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance
survey
list of questions to be answered by research participants—given as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally—allowing researchers to collect data from a large number of people
theory
well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena
validity
accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure
action potential
electrical signal that moves down the neuron’s axon
agonist
drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter; substance that bind to synaptic receptors and increase the effect of the neurotransmitter.
axon
major extension of the soma
dendrite
branch-like extension of the soma that receives incoming signals from other neurons
glial cell
nervous system cell that provides physical and metabolic support to neurons, including neuronal insulation and communication, and nutrient and waste transport
neuron
cells in the nervous system that act as interconnected information processors, which are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system
resting potential
the state of readiness of a neuron membrane’s potential between signals
reuptake
neurotransmitter is pumped back into the neuron that released it
semipermeable membrane
cell membrane that allows smaller molecules or molecules without an electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules
synaptic cleft/synapse
small gap between two neurons where communication occurs
threshold of excitation
level of charge in the cell membrane that causes the neuron to become active (controlled by levels of sodium and potassium ions)
circadian rhythm
biological rhythm that occurs over approximately 24 hours
collective unconscious
theoretical repository of information shared by all people across cultures, as described by Carl Jung
consciousness
awareness of internal and external stimuli
delta wave
type of brain wave characteristic during stage 3 NREM sleep, which has a high amplitude and low frequency of less than 3 Hz
jet lag
collection of symptoms brought on by travel from one time zone to another that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment
melatonin
hormone secreted by the endocrine gland that serves as an important regulator of the sleep-wake cycle
narcolepsy
sleep disorder in which the sufferer cannot resist falling to sleep at inopportune times
night terror
sleep disorder in which the sleeper experiences a sense of panic and may scream or attempt to escape from the immediate environment
non-REM (NREM)
period of sleep outside periods of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
obstructive sleep apnea
sleep disorder defined by episodes when breathing stops during sleep as a result of blockage of the airway
parasomnia
one of a group of sleep disorders characterized by unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep
pineal gland
endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
period of sleep characterized by brain waves very similar to those during wakefulness and by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids
REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)
sleep disorder in which the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur; sleepers have high levels of physical activity during REM sleep, especially during disturbing dreams
sleep
state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness
sleep apnea
sleep disorder defined by episodes during which breathing stops during sleep
sleep debt
result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis
sleep rebound
sleep-deprived individuals will experience shorter sleep latencies during subsequent opportunities for sleep
stage 1 sleep
first stage of sleep; transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleep; the period during which a person drifts off to sleep
stage 2 sleep
second stage of sleep; the body goes into deep relaxation; characterized by the appearance of sleep spindles
stage 3 sleep
third stage of sleep; deep sleep characterized by low frequency, high amplitude delta waves
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
area of the hypothalamus in which the body’s biological clock is located
absolute threshold
minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time
afterimage
continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus
bottom-up processing
system in which perceptions are built from sensory input
cocktail-party effect
the ability to attend to one of several speech streams while ignoring others, as when one is at a cocktail party.
cone
specialized photoreceptor that works best in bright light conditions and detects color
Feature detectors
the visual system has feature detectors for lines and angles of different orientations as well as for more complex stimuli, such as faces.
fovea
small indentation in the retina that contains cones; central focus area of the retina
frequency
number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period
Ganglion cells
the only type of neuron in the retina that sends signals to the brain resulting from visual stimulation. Retinal ganglion cells receive input from retinal bipolar cells and amacrine cells. The axons of retinal ganglion cells form the optic nerve.
intensity/amplitude
the quantitative value of a stimulus or sensation.
just noticeable difference
difference in stimuli required to detect a difference between the stimuli
opponent-process theory of color perception
color is coded in opponent pairs: black-white, yellow-blue, and red-green
perception
way that sensory information is interpreted and consciously experienced
pitch
perception of a sound’s frequency
Prosopagnosia
“face blindness”
pupil
small opening in the eye through which light passes
retina
light-sensitive lining of the eye
rod
specialized photoreceptor that works well in low light conditions
sensory adaptation
not perceiving stimuli that remain relatively constant over prolonged periods of time
signal detection theory
change in stimulus detection as a function of current mental state
top-down processing
interpretation of sensations is influenced by available knowledge, experiences, and thoughts
transduction
conversion from sensory stimulus energy to action potential
trichromatic theory of color perception
color vision is mediated by the activity across the three groups of cones
Volley Principle
the principle that individual fibers in an auditory nerve respond to one or another stimulus in a rapid succession of rhythmic sound stimuli, whereas other fibers in the nerve respond to the second, third, or nth stimulus.
