Midterm Review Flashcards
What is homeostasis and why is it important to maintain?
The tendency toward a relatively stable equilibrium between interdependent elements, especially as maintained by physiological processes
Important to maintain because it allows the cells to function properly
What are the survival needs of the human body?
Water Food O2 Heat Pressure
What is the order of the structural organization of the human body? How are these levels related?
Cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
Each builds off of the next
What are the 11 body systems and their major functions?
Integumentary- covers the body, senses changes outside the body, and helps regulate body temp
Cardiovascular- distributes o2 and nutrients throughout the body while removing waste from cells
Muscular- movement, posture, and body heat
Skeletal- supports, protects, provides frameworks, stores inorganic salts, and houses bloodforming tissues
Nervous- integrates incoming information from receptors and sends impulses to muscles and glands
Digestive- receives, breaks down, and absorbs nutrients.
Reproductive- produces new organisms
Respiratory- exchanges gases b/w blood and air
Endocrine- helps integrate metabolic functions (hormones)
Lymphatic- drains excess tissue fluid and includes cells of immunity
Urinary- removes wastes from the blood and helps to maintain water and electrolyte balance
What are the anatomical terms to describe body planes?
Sagittal section divides body into right and left portions
Transverse section divides body into superior and inferior portions. AKA cross section
Coronal section divides body into anterior and posterior sections
Anterior
In front of
Posterior
Behind
Superior
Above
Inferior
Below
Medial
On the inner side of
Lateral
On the outer side of
Proximal
Closer to the origin
Distal
Farther from the origin
Superficial
At the body surface
What is anatomy?
Structure of the body
What is physiology
Function of the body
Abdominal
Anterior body trunk
Acromial
Point of shoulder
Antecubital
Anterior surface of elbow
Axillary
Armpit
Brachial
Arm
Buccal
Cheek area
Carpal
Wrist
Cervical
Neck region
Coxal
Hip
Crural
Leg
Digital
Fingers, toes
Femoral
Thigh
Fibular
Lateral part of the leg
Inguinal
Area where thigh meets body trunk
Nasal
Nose
Oral
Mouth
Orbital
Eye area
Patellar
Anterior knee
Pelvic
Area overlying pelvis anteriorly
Pubic
Genital region
Sternal
Breastbone area
Tarsal
Ankle region
Thoracic
Chest
Umbilical
Navel
Cephalic
Head
Deltoid
Curve of shoulder
Gluteal
Buttock
Lumbar
Area of back between ribs and hips
Occiptal
Posterior surface of head
Popliteal
Posterior knee area
Sacral
Area between hips
Scapular
Shoulder blade region
Sural
Posterior surface of lower leg;calf
Vertebral
Area of spine
What is the division of the body
Appendicular (limbs)
Axial (head, neck, and trunk)
Dorsal cavity (cranial cavity and vertebral column)
Ventral cavity(thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity)
Mediastinum divides thorax in half
Oral, nasal, orbital, middle ear
4 quadrants and 9 regions
Look at diagram
Fibroblasts
Has abundant rER and golgi apparatus
Erythrocytes
Red blood cells that carry o2 thru bloodstream
Epithelial
Hexagonal cells packed together in sheets with abundant amount of intermediate filaments
Muscle cell
Elongated
Filled with an abundant amount of contractile filaments
Fat cells
Contains large lipid drop within cytoplasm
Stores nutrients
Macrophage
Cell
Fights disease
Neuron
Cell that gathers information and controls body functions
Oocyte
Female sex cell
Sperm
Male sex cell
What are the four major tissue types?
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
Structures of epithelial tissue
Simple
Stratified
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Function of epithelial tissue
Lining, covering, and glandular tissue of the body
Protects, absorbs, filtrates, secretes
Location of epithelial tissue
Skin, body cavities
Connective tissue structure
Well vascularized (Except tendons and ligaments and cartilage)
Made up of many different types of cells
Has extracellular matrix
Function of connective tissue
Connects body parts
Support body
Provide protection
Location of connective tissue
Everywhere in the body
Muscle tissue structure
Elongated
Long axis for contraction
Skeletal has striations
Cardiac has intercalated disc
Muscle tissue function
Contraction
Shortening
Muscle tissue location
Along bones
Heart
Organs
Nervous tissue structure
Made up of neurons
Cytoplasm long and drawn out
Nervous tissue function
Receive and conduct electrical impulses
Nervous tissue location
Brain
Spinal chord
Nerves
Cutaneous membrane structure
Keratinizing stratified squamous and dense connective tissue
Cutaneous membrane function
Makes up the skin, protection
Cutaneous membrane location
Outer portion of body
Exposed to air
Dry membrane
Mucous membrane structure
Various epithelial and lamina propria
Mucous membrane function
Secrete mucus for lubrication
Protects against infection
Mucous membrane location
Cavities open to exterior
Wet membrane
Serous membrane structure
Simple squamous on top of areolar tissue
Serous membrane function
Line and enclose body cavities
Serous membrane location
Cavities closed to exterior
Synovial membrane structure
Areolar tissue
Synovial membrane function
Line fibrous capsules surrounding joints (bursae and tendon sheath)
Provide smooth surface and lubricating fluid
Synovial membrane location
Surrounding joints
Main functions of integumentary system
Protection
Excretion
Insulation and cushioning
Manufactures protein and vitamin D
Epidermis
Composed of 5 layers
Top layer of skin
Keratinizes
Contains melanin
Dermis
Middle layer of skin
Has papillary layer and reticular layer
Nutrients, pain receptors, increase friction, grabbing
Blood vessels, sweat/oil glands, pressure receptors
Well vascularized
Hair
Protects head against bumps, shield eyes, help keep stuff out of respiratory system
Hair follicle
Produces hair
Sebaceous glands
Oil glands
Ducts empty into hair follicle
Produce sebum
Sweat gland
Aka sudoriferous glands
Two types : eccrine and apocrine
How is skin color determined?
Amount of melanin in the skin
Produced by melanocytes
First degree burn
Only epidermis is damaged
Area becomes red and swollen
Heal within 2-3 days without special attention
Second degree burn
Epidermis and upper dermal is damaged
Area is red, painful, and possibly forms blisters
Regeneration can occur
Third degree burn
Destroys entire thickness of skin
Area appears blanched(gray-white)
Nerve endings are destroyed
Regeneration not possible
Basal cell carcinoma
Least malignant, most common
Cells of stratum basale are altered so they can no longer form keratin
Cells invade dermis and subcutaneous
Sun exposed area of face
Shiny, dome shaped modules
Pearly edge
99% cured
Squamous cell carcinoma
Stratum spinosum are altered
Scaly, reddened papule
Forms shallow ulcer raised border
Grows rapidly
Malignant melanoma
Cancer of melanocytes
5% of skin cancers
Spreading brown/black patch that metastasizes rapidly to surrounding lymph and blood vessels
50% chance of survival
How is aging in the integumentary system portrayed?
Fetal development: lanugo(down type of hair)
Birth: skin covered with vernix caseosa (white substance produced by sebaceous gland)
Newborn: thin and contains milia (small white spots on face)
Growth causes skin to become thicker and moist , more fat deposited
Adolescence: skin becomes more oily
Young adult: acne
Old age: skin gets drier, fat tissue decreases, elasticity decreases
50: 1/3 of hair follicles have dropped
Main functions of skeletal system
Support Protection Movement Storage Blood cell formation(hematopoiesis)
Four main types of bone and example of each
Long(humerus)
Short(carpals)
Flat(sternum)
Irregular(vertebrae)
How do calcium levels affect strength and durability of bones?
The higher the calcium levels in your bones, the stronger they are
How do the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae differ in appearance?
Cervical: smallest, lightest, holes on the sides
Thoracic: middle size, hole in the middle
Lumbar: massive, block like
Scoliosis
Sideways curvature of spine
Kyphosis
Over curvature of thoracic region (hunchback)
Lordosis
Inward curvature of cervical and lumbar regions
Male and female pelvis differentiation
Female inlet is larger/more circular
Female Pelvis is shallower and bones are lighter
Female ilia flare more laterally
Female sacrum is shorter, less curved
Female ischial spines are shorter and farther apart; outlet is larger
Female pubic arch is greater and more rounded
Three major categories of joints and amount of movement allowed by each
Synarthroses: immovable
Amphyiarthroses: slightly moveable
Diarthroses: freely moveable
Six types of synovial joints and examples of each
Plane: tarsals
Hinge: patella
Pivot: ulna and radius
Condyloid:fingers
Saddle: thumb
how do forensic anthropologists determine an individual’s identity based on bones?
- pelvis shape
- length of bones
- development of growth plate
- shape of eye sockets, nose
- teeth
how does smooth, cardiac, and skeletal muscle differ
Smooth: spindle shaped & no striations, uninucleated, located in organs, involuntary movement
Skeletal: cylindrical with striations, multinucleated, attached to bones, voluntary movement
Cardiac: Branching w/ striations, found in heart, involuntary
What are the main functions of the muscle system?
- movement
- maintain posture
- stabilize joints
- generates heat
how do myosin and actin cause muscle contractions
when muscle fibers are activated by the nervous system, cross bridges attach myosin to actin to cause contraction
what are the series of events of muscle cell contraction
- neurons send impulses over neuromuscular junctions , which are separated by a synaptic cleft
- neurotransmitter crosses synaptic cleft and attaches to sarcolemma
- once attached, Na ions rush into cell and generate energy (action potential)
what is graded response
in muscle contraction, different degrees of shortening, depending on the stimuli
what is tetanus
the accumulation of nerve impulses to provide movement
- fused tetanus is smooth, full movement
- unfused tetanus are the steps leading to fused tetanus
what are isotonic contractions
movement occurs
isometric contractions
myofilaments are unable to slide, movement cannot occur
what are the 3 ways ATP is regenerated
- direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate
- Aerobic glycolysis
- Anaerobic respiration (lactic acid fermentation)
direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate
- creatine transfers high energy phosphate to ADP, making ATP
- 1 ATP per CP
- anaerobic
- muscles store more CP than ATP
- CP exhausted in 15-20 s
aerobic respiration
- glucose broken down into CO2 and H20 and 36 ATP
- O2, amino acids, pyruvic acids, fatty acid required
- allows contraction for hours
anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid fermentation
glycolysis breaks glucose into pyruvic acid and 2 atp
- 2 atp per glucose
- if o2 not present, broken into lactic acid
- yields 5% of atp of aerobic respiration
- faster process, provides atp for 30-60 s
what are the types of body movement
flexion extension rotation abduction adduction circumduction dorsiflexion plantar flexion inversion eversion opposition supination pronation
how is aging in muscle system portrayed?
muscles becoming flaccid, atrophy
what are the 3 eye tunics and location of each?
sclera(outermost)
choroid(middle)
retina(inner)
what are rods?
one of the photoreceptors, helps to see in darker places
what are cones?
one of the photoreceptors, helps to see details in brightly lit places
passageway of light as it enters eye
cornea, aqueous humor,lens, vitreous humor, retina
how does an individual use equilibrium organs to maintain dynamic balance and static balance?
static: inside the vestibular apparatus there are receptors called maculae (report position of head). static helps determine movement of the head in the up or down direction. otoliths and hair cells are in the otolithic membrane. otoliths send impulses to vestibular nerve then cerebellum to inform body location of head
dynamic: receptors found in semicircular canals, respond to angular movements. receptor regions called crista ampullaris are located in semicircular canals and covered by cupula. endolymph fluid moves in opposite direction of body movement, pushing cupula and stimulating hair cells to send impulses to vestibular nerve.
location of olfactory and taste receptors
roof of each nasal cavity
(taste) oral cavity and tongue
structure of olfactory and taste receptors
neurons with olfactory hairs and mucus covering them
function of olfactory and taste receptors
gives sense of smell and taste when chemicals are dissolved
what are the four basic taste sensations
sweet receptors:sugars,saccharine,some amino acids
- sour receptors: H or acidity of solution
- bitter receptors: alkaloids
- salty receptors:metal ions in solution
aging in special senses
-as you age, the sharpness of sense begins to fade
