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Biology > Microscopy Skills > Flashcards

Microscopy Skills Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is the Cell Theory

A

All living things are made of cells

Cells come from pre-existing cells

Cells are the basic unit of life

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2
Q

Three Magnification Formulas

A

I = A * M

M = I / A

A = I / M

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3
Q

Difference between Light and Electronic Microscope

A

Light microscope uses light
Electronic uses electrons

Light microscope can use stains to improve viewing
Electron microscope can’t

Light microscopes are cheap
Electron microscopes are expensive

Light microscopes are easily used
Electron microscopes require training

Light microscope can have specimen dead or alive
Electron microscope needs specimen to be dead

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4
Q

Difference with Magnification and Resolution

A

Magnification: The size of the image enlarged

Resolution: How clear the image is

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5
Q

Freeze-fracture Electron Microscopy

A

Used to produce images of surfaces of cells

The sample gets frozen

A steel blade is used to cut the cell’s weak point and some of the ice is removed by vaporization

The sample gets etched with platinum or carbon to form a coating

The replica is removed from the frozen sample and can be examined using an electron microscope

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6
Q

Cryogenic Electron Microscopy

A

Used for researching the structure of proteins

A thin layer of pure protein solution is applied to a grid

Sample gets rapidly frozen then fractured

This enables an image to be formed from a computer to show the three dimensional framework of proteins

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7
Q

Immunofluorescence

A

Used to find out if a protein is being produced in a cell

Fluorescent stains bind with specific antibodies

This can help identify the marked antibody and find out about its function

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8
Q

Prokaryote Structures:

A

Nucleoid Region: Region containing the naked DNA which stores genetic information that controls the cell and initiates binary fission

Cell Wall: Protects the cell from the outside environment, maintains the shape of the cell, and prevents it from bursting

Plasma Membrane: Controls what substances enter and leave the cell

Cytoplasm: The site of all chemical reactions

Pili: Help bacteria attach to each other to exchange genetic information

Flagella: Locomotion

Ribosomes: Protein Synthesis

Plasmid: Helps the bacteria adapt to unusual situations

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9
Q

Ribosome

A

Small spherical structure that can either be attached to the RER or free in the cytoplasm

When free in the cytoplasm, they make proteins for the cell

When attached to the RER, they make proteins to export from the cell

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10
Q

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

RER: A network of membranes that have ribosomes attached to its surface

SER: A network of smaller membranes with no ribosomes

RER synthesizes proteins and transports them

SER produces lipids such as membrane phospholipids and sex cells

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11
Q

Lysosome

A

Arise from the Golgi Apparatus, and contain many digestive enzymes that digest structures that are not needed in the cell

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12
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A

Consists of flattened sacs called cisternae. Has a cis side which receives products and a trans side which is where vesicles are discharged

They receive proteins and modify them and packages the proteins into vesicles to be sent to the plasma membrane

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13
Q

Mitochondria

A

Produces ATP

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14
Q

Nucleus

A

The region that contains chromosomes which is responsible for controlling the cell

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15
Q

Nucleolus

A

Synthesizes Ribosomes

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16
Q

Centrosomes

A

Cell movement and Cell division

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17
Q

Chloroplast

A

Photosynthesis

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18
Q

Vacuoles

A

Are a large sac that store food, water, and toxins and allows an uptake of water to provide turgidity of the cell

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19
Q

Advantages of Compartmentalization

A

Efficiency of metabolism

Localized conditions

Toxic or damaging substances can be isolated

Number and location of organelles can be changed depending on cell’s requirements

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20
Q

The 8 Functions of Life

A

Metabolism: The site of all chemical reactions in the cell

Reproduction: The production of offspring

Homeostasis: Keeping internal conditions stable within limits

Growth: Irreversible change in growth

Response: React to changes in stimuli

Excretion: Removal of metabolic waste

Nutrition: Obtaining nutrients to provide energy and materials for growth

Movement

21
Q

Atypical Examples of Cells

A

Striated muscle cell has many nuclei

Giant Algae is very large

Hyphae contains many nuclei

Red Blood Cells come from the bone and can’t divide

Phloem Sieve Plate has no nuclei yet can still function

22
Q

Endosymbiotic Theory for Mitochondria and Chloroplast

A

Mitochondria: The mitochondria got engulfed by a larger eukaryotic cell. The cell provided it with food and protection while the mitochondria converted the food into ATP for the cell

Chloroplast: The chloroplast got engulfed by a larger eukaryotic cell. The cell provided it protection while the chloroplast provided the cell with organic matter

23
Q

Evidence of Endosymbiotic Theory

A

Mitochondria and Chloroplast both:

Have 70s ribosomes

Double membrane

Their own DNA

Can divide by binary fission

Are the same size as bacteria

24
Q

Differentiation

A

The process where a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell

25
Q

Advantages of Multicellularity

A

Greater Diversity: Each cell has a specific job to perform

Longer lifespans: The death of one cell does not matter

Greater Size: Multicellular organisms can be larger and perform more efficiently

26
Q

Cell Signaling

A

The process where information from the cell surface gets transferred to the nucleus

27
Q

Morphogens

A

A biochemical molecule that can determine the fate of a cell based off its concentration

28
Q

What are Stem Cells

A

Undifferentiated cells that can continuously divide, have the ability to differentiate, and can heal wounds

29
Q

Sources of Stem Cells and Characteristics

A

Embryos
Adult Tissue
Cord Blood

Self-renewal
Potency

30
Q

Types of Stem Cells

A

Totipotent: Any type of cell
Pluripotent: Many types of cell
Multipotent: Few types of cell
Unipotent: One type of cell

31
Q

Stem Cell Niche

A

An area of tissue that provides an environment where stem cells can stay undifferentiated

32
Q

Examples of Stem Cell Niches

A

Blood stem cell niches are located in the bone marrow

Hair follicles stem cell niche are found within the skin

33
Q

The Importance of SA:V Ratio

A

As the cell increases, the surface area to volume ratio decreases

Surface area controls the rate of exchanging materials and volume controls the rate of metabolism

Volume increases faster than SA, therefore making it harder to exchange waste and heat

This leads to the cell dividing

34
Q

Advantage and Disadvantage of Large SA:V Ratio

A

Shorter diffusion pathway, so molecules don’t have to travel far

High-rate heat gain and heat loss, so they require more nutrients

35
Q

Adaptations to Increase SA:V Ratio

A

Changes in cell shape

Cellular projections

How the cells fit together at a specific location

36
Q

Compartmentalization

A

The isolation of reactions

37
Q

Organelles that have No Membrane, Single Membrane, or Double Membrane

A

No:
Ribosome, Centriole, Microtubule

Single:
Vesicle, RER, SER, Golgi, Lysosome

Double:
Mitochondria, Chloroplast, Nucleus

38
Q

Advantages of Compartmentalization Part 2

A

Allows for specialized control of major DNA functions

More complex proteins and RNA products are formed separately

The nuclear envelope allows gene expression regulated by eukaryote only mechanisms

39
Q

What is Clathrin

A

A protein that plays a major role in the formation of coating vesicles

40
Q

Process of Clathrin

A

Clathrin gets positioned on the inner side of the plasma membrane when the vesicle is being made

It gathers and binds around each other forming a lattice of pentagons around the developing membrane forming a coated pit

The membrane eventually breaks off and fuses to form a vesicle

41
Q

Evidence that Cells only Come From Pre-Existing Cells

A

Cells are complex structures

The origin of all cells can be traced back to the first cell

Genetic code is universal

42
Q

Requirements for Evolution of the First Cell

A

Catalysis

Self-assembly

Self-replication

Compartmentalization

43
Q

Miller Urey Experiment

A

Explains the origins of carbon compounds

Water was boiled to vapor to reflect the high temperatures

The vapor passes through a mixture of ammonia, methane, and hydrogen for lack of oxygen

It was then exposed to an electrical discharge which simulates lightning

It was then allowed to cool to concentrate its components

Carbon compounds were later formed

44
Q

Conditions of Pre-Biotic Earth

A

Ultraviolet Light Penetration

High Temperature

Lack of free oxygen

High concentration of CO2 and methane

Water vapor and lightning

45
Q

RNA World Hypothesis

A

RNA can self assemble

RNA can self replicate

RNA can enzymatically catalyze metabolic reactions

46
Q

Evidence for LUCA

A

All organisms use DNA as genetic material

Same structure of double helix

Same 20 amino acids

Same mechanism for protein synthesis

47
Q

Evidence for LUCA in Hydrothermal Vents

A

Anaerobic

CO2 and Nitrogen Fixing

Hydrogen Dependent

Thermophilic

48
Q

Approaches used to estimate LUCA

A

Radiometric Data

Biochemical Evidence

Biology (24 decks)

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