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Microbiology Exam 2 > Microbial Genetics > Flashcards

Microbial Genetics Flashcards

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1
Q

What does genetics mean?

A

The study of hereditary

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2
Q

What does genetics include? (4)

A
  • study of genes
  • gene replication
  • gene products ( proteins, rRNA, tRna)
  • genes from one gene expressed to another
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3
Q

What does genome mean?

A

sums of the cells genetic material

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4
Q

What does the genome consist of?

A

All the chromosomes of a cell & plasmids

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5
Q

What does genomics mean?

A

The sequencing and molecular characterization of genomes

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6
Q

Does genomics fall under the word genome ? Why?

A

Because genomics are the sequencing of genomes

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7
Q

What does genotype mean?

A

Genetic makeup of cell/organism

( sequence of dna )

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8
Q

What does phenotype mean?

A

Actual traits due to the expression of the genotype

( the expression of the genes as a trait )

( the trait that we get from this sequence of dna )

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9
Q

If you have the gene for green eyes, would you have the genotype or phenotype? Why?

A

Genotype
- you have the literal gene of green eyes in your DNA

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10
Q

If you have the ACTUAL ( physical ) green eyes, is it genotype or phenotype? Why?

A

Phenotype
- cause that gene came through and made it your ACTUAL trait ( physically )

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11
Q

Most of the time, why do you get that phenotype ( from the example of green eyes )?

A

Because the genes are first transcribed to RNA then translated to proteins

Which then pretty much gives you that trait of having green eyes

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12
Q

Is it easy to manipulate bacteria?

A

Yes

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13
Q

What are chromosomes?

A

Physical structure that Carries the hereditary information

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14
Q

What does chromosomes contain?

A

Nucleic acids ( DNA )
A, T, G, C

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15
Q

What’s the shape of a chromosomes ?

A

Double stranded, helical DNA

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16
Q

What template does chromosomes help make?

A

A template to make RNA

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17
Q

In prokaryotes, they have how many chromosomes, what’s it shape, and may also contain? ( general )

A

One circular Chromosomes
Plasmid

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18
Q

In eukaryotes, how many Chromosomes, it’s shape?

A

More than one
Linear chromosomes

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19
Q

Does prokaryotes have histones?

A

No

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20
Q

Does eukaryotes have histones?

A

Yes

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21
Q

What are DNA and RNA made up of?

A

Nucleic acids

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22
Q

What are nucleic acids made up of?

A

Nucleotides

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23
Q

What is a nucleotides made up of, for DNA ?(3)

A
  • nitrogenous base
  • deoxyribose (sugar )
  • phosphate
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24
Q

What is a nucleotide made up of for rna ? (3)

A
  • nitrogenous base
  • ribose ( sugar )
  • phosphate
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25
Q

What are the nitrogenous bases for dna ? (4)

A

A, T, G, C

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26
Q

What’s the nitrogenous base for RNA ?

A

A, U, C, G

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27
Q

What’s the dogma( rule) of genetic information?

A

DNA -> RNA -> PROTEINS

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28
Q

What is transcription ?

A

DNA -> RNA

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29
Q

What is translation ?

A

RNA -> protein

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30
Q

Are dna strands complimentary to each other?

A

Yes

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31
Q

What is the backbone of DNA?

A

Sugar- phosphate
Deoxyribose phosphate

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32
Q

What are the pairs for DNA?

A

Adenine ( A ) & Thymine ( T )
Guanine ( G ) & Cytosine ( C )

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33
Q

If you are given one strand of DNA, are you able to find the complementary strand? Why ?

A

Yes cause of the difference of T and U from dna to RNA

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34
Q

If you are asked to explain, what does it mean that DNA is always complimentaryto each other, what would you say ?

A

They always match because adenine always pairs with thymine

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35
Q

Does every strand of dna have a 5 prime and 3 prime end ?

A

Yes

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36
Q

What does the 5 prime end and 3 prime end mean in a dna?( think of the carbon )

A

The position of the carbon

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37
Q

Are we referring to which carbon is exposed to when we say 5 prime end and 3 prime end? Why?

A

Yes cause it’s the positioning of the carbon ( either 5 carbon or 3 carbon ) attached to sugar

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38
Q

What is the rule about 5 prime end ( carbon ) ?

A

That they are attached to a phosphate bond

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39
Q

How can we tell the difference in a picture, between 5 prime end and 3 prime end ?

A

3 prime end has an OH on the sugar

5 prime end is attached to phosphate

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40
Q

What does antiparallel strands mean ?

A

They are parallel
HOWEVER
they move in opposite directions

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41
Q

If one strand is going from 5 prime end to 3 prime end, does that mean the other strand starts as 3 prime end to 5 prime end? Why?

A

YES!!!
Because they are anti parallel

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42
Q

If they ( strands ) weren’t moving in opposite directions ( antiparallel ) would the nitrogenous bases face each other ?

A

No

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43
Q

Is the entire dna replication semi conservative?

A

Yes

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44
Q

What does semi conservative mean in dna replication?

A

( The entire process of dna replication )

  • a parent strand acts as a template for a new daughter strand
  • in which results in 2 daughter strands
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45
Q

A simple definition of semi conservative ?

A
  • parent strand shows a template to one strand
  • then another strand is brand new
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46
Q

So to conclude a semi conservative is one strand template from parent and another brand new strand ? And it results in what?

A

Yes, and results in 2 daughter strands

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47
Q

Does NEW dna strand always start with 5 prime end to 3 prime end?

A

YES!!! ALWAYSSSSS

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48
Q

For dna replication what are we mainly trying to do?

A
  • making copies

Using a blueprint, parental, old strand

to make a brand new strand

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49
Q

What do we need to replicate dna ? ( big 3 )

A

Enzymes
- DNA polymerase
- Primase
- helicase
- Ligase

New nucleic tides
- A, T, G, C

New primers

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50
Q

What is opening up of dna replication called ( it looks like a zipper opening up, splitting into 2 ) ?

A

Replication fork

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51
Q

What is origin of replication ?

A

A specific location where dna replication will happen

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52
Q

What is the first step of dna replication

A
  • helicase ( enzyme ) will unwind the parental double helix
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53
Q

What does the unwinding of the parent double helix create? ( second step )

A

Replication fork

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54
Q

What does the replication fork allows?

A

Allows for the replication of each strand

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55
Q

What is the third step of dna replication ?

A

Single stranded binding proteins react/ attach to stabilize the single regions

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56
Q

What is the 4th step in LEADING STRAND ?

A

RNA primer is given by the cell

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57
Q

What is the 5th step in LEADING strand ?

A

Dna polymearse III (3) gives out new nucleotides by removing the given RNA primer

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58
Q

What is the end result for LEADING strand?

A

A copy of the parental strand

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59
Q

Does the leading strand move continuously?

A

Yes

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60
Q

Does the leading strand start with 3 prime end and moves towards 5 prime end?

A

Yes

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61
Q

Does the leading strand move towards the replication fork?

A

Yes

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62
Q

Can DNA polymerase III (3) start replication?and why?

A

No because we need RNA primer to help us

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63
Q

Can DNA polymerase III (3) add new nucleotides to a pre existing 3 prime end?

A

YES, ONLY

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64
Q

What is the 4th step in LAGGING strand ?

A

RNA primer is placed AHEAD in order to help connect everything, in small sections

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65
Q

What is the 5th step in LAGGING strand ?

A

The small sections we place the rna primer, they are called OKAZAKI FRAGMENTS

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66
Q

What are the small sections called in LAGGING strand?

A

Okazaki fragments
- helps connects rna primer to other rna primer

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67
Q

What is the 6th step in LAGGING strand?

A

The dna polymerase III (3), can add new nucleotides in those small fragments from connecting one RNA primer to the other RNA primer

68
Q

What’s the 7th step in LAGGING strand?

A

DNA polymerase I (1) is made when the other rna primer joins

Which removes rna for dna

69
Q

What is the 8th step in LAGGING strand? ( what does it join )

A

Dna ligase joins everything together
- joins the Okazaki fragments

70
Q

What is the end result from the LAGGING strand?

A

New daughter strand

71
Q

For the lagging strand, is it moving 5 prime end to 3 prime end?

A

Yes

72
Q

For the lagging strand, is it moving away from the replication fork?

A

Yes

73
Q

Is the lagging strand discontinuous?

A

Yes

74
Q

dna replication is semi conservative and occurs in 3 to 5 direction?

A

NO

it is semi conservative

HOWEVER
Moves in 5 to 3 direction

75
Q

What is the enzyme that joins Okazaki fragments?

A

Dna ligase

76
Q

An RNA primer is required to replicate both the leading and lagging strands of DNA ?

A

Yes!!! Always!!!

77
Q

What is the full name for DNA polymerase?

A

DNA dependent DNA polymerase

78
Q

What are the big enzymes & names that help DNA replication ? (5 )

A
  • enzyme helicase
  • RNA primer
  • DNA polymerase
  • Okazaki fragments
  • DNA ligase
79
Q

Where does dna replication occur in eukaryotes?

A

Nucleus

80
Q

Where does dna replication occur in prokaryotes ?

A

Cytoplasm

81
Q

How many replications fork are in eukaryotes? And why?

A

1 because they are linear

82
Q

How many replication fork for prokaryotes? And why?

A

2 because it’s circular

83
Q

What is the dogma to genetic information? and is it only cells?

A

Dna -> rna -> Protein

YES ONLY

84
Q

What does transcription mean?

A

DNA to RNA

85
Q

What are the 3 types of RNA?

A

mRNA
tRNA
rRNA

86
Q

What does mRNA mean and function as?

A

Messenger
- Carries the actual information to make proteins

87
Q

What does tRNA mean and function?

A

Transfer
- Carries individual amino acids to ribosomes for making new proteins

88
Q

What does rRNA mean and function as?

A

ribosomal
- ribosomes contain proteins + rRNA

89
Q

What are ribosomes needed for?

A

Protein synthesis

90
Q

What are the nucleotides of RNA?

A

A, U, C, G

91
Q

What is the enzyme that we need for transcription ? ( DNA -> RNA )

A

RNA polymerase

92
Q

What’s the full name of RNA polymerase?

A

DNA dependent RNA polymerase

93
Q

Why do we call it DNA dependent for RNA polymerase and DNA polymerase?

A

Because we are using a piece of DNA to make RNA or another DNA

94
Q

What is the starting site for transcription ( DNA -> RNA ) ?

A

Promoter

95
Q

What does the promoter do for RNA?

A

Starts matching A with U and C with G

96
Q

When the RNA strand is about to be finished in transcription, what is the endpoint name?

A

Terminator

97
Q

Once the RNA reaches the Terminotor in transcription, what happenes next?

A

The cell then decides weather it’s mRNA, tRNA or rRNA

98
Q

Where does transcription occur in eukaryotic cells?

A

Nucleus

99
Q

Where does transcription occur in prokaryotes?

A

Cytoplasm

100
Q

What is translation?

A

RNA -> Proteins

101
Q

What do we need for translation to occur? ( RNA -> Protein ) (6)

A
  • tRNA
  • mRNA
  • ribosomes
  • amino acids
  • enzymes
  • codons
102
Q

What is the language of mRNA in?

A

Codons

103
Q

How many letters are in the language for mRNA codons? And what are they?

A

4
A, U, C, G

104
Q

Does transcription and translation occur in the cytoplasm for prokaryotes?

A

Yes

105
Q

How many letters in a codon does it take to make 1 set?

A

3 letters

106
Q

3 nucleotides make up a ?

A

Codon

107
Q

How many codons can you make in total from only using 3 nucleotides? However we can’t use 3 of them, why?

A

64

Because 3 of them don’t make any amino acids

It’s 61

108
Q

What are the function of codons?

A

To code for amino acids

109
Q

What is the codon that Translation starts with?

A

AUG

110
Q

What are the 3 codons that end translation ?( RNA -> proteins )

A

UAA
UAG
UGA

111
Q

What is the name of the amino acid that AUG ( the starting of translation )makes?

A

Methionine

112
Q

Why is UAA, UAG, UGA stop codons for translation?

A

Because we don’t have any amino acids that use that code

113
Q

How many amino acids do we have in nature?

A

20

114
Q

How many codons do we have that actually make amino acids ?

A

61

115
Q

Why do we have 61 condons and not 64 ?

A

Because 3 of them don’t make any amino acid

116
Q

What does redundant mean for codons?

A

That more than one codon codes for the same amino acids

117
Q

Why do we have 61 codons for 20 amino acids? ( think of evolution, in case of what happenes )

A

In case of damage to DNA
- an evolution reprotective methods in cells

  • in case of a mutation, the amino acids don’t change so who cares
118
Q

What is a silent mutation?

A
  • change in dna
  • change in sequence of rna

However the codon is differenet but for the SAME amino acids

The protein doesn’t change ( stays the same )

119
Q

Does silent mutation give us flexibility during dna replication?

A

Yes

120
Q

What is degenerate mean in codons?

A

Even though they(codons) are structurally different after the mutation, they still produce the same amino acids

121
Q

What is the 1st step to translation ( RNA -> Protein )?

A

Large ribosomal unit and small ribosomal unit of RNA join together

122
Q

What is the 2nd step of translation ( RNA -> Protein )?

A
  • The ribosomal reads the starting codon ( AUG )
  • ask the tRNA to bring amino acids so it can match to AUG
  • ultimately making methionine
  • reads the next condon and tRNA brings amino acids to it as well
123
Q

What’s the first tRNA site called?

A

P site

124
Q

What’s the 3rd step of translation ( rna -> protein )?

A

Both amino acids ( starting codon and second condon ) join together and make peptide bond

125
Q

How do we make a peptide bond in translation?

A

Two amino acids condons join together

126
Q

What’s the 4th step in translation ? ( rna -> to protein )

A

Then the ribosome moves along and tRNA brings the amino acids and as well for the next codon

127
Q

What’s the 5th step of translation ?
( rna to protein )

A

The two new amino acids are join together to make peptide bond

128
Q

Now that we are onto the 5th step and have at least 4 amino acids, what is going to happen?

A

The first amino acid ever read, the starting codon, AUG, is released

129
Q

Where is the first amino acid released from?

A

E site

130
Q

What is the 6th step of translation? ( rna to protein )

A

Keeps repeating the same thing from step 2 to 4 until it reaches stop codon

  • reading codons
  • tRNA brings amino acids
  • 2 amino acids make peptide bond
  • one is being released after 4 amino acids
131
Q

What is 7th step of translation? ( rna to protein )

A

We reach a stop codon
- UAA
- UAG
- UGA

132
Q

What is the 8th step in translation?
( rna to protein )

A

Release all polypeptide to form first structure of protein

133
Q

How many structure are in a protein? ( remember this since translation just took care of the 1st step in making protein )

A

4

134
Q

Where does translation occur in eukaryotes? ( in general )

A

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

135
Q

Where does translation occur in prokaryotes ?

A

Cytoplasm

136
Q

How many amino acids do you make from the sequence below & why?
AUG | CCA | GGA | GUG | UAA

A

you make 4 amino acids

Why only 4? Because UAA is a stop codon; it doesn’t make amino acids

137
Q

Does bacteria undergo sexual reproduction ?

A

No

138
Q

Since bacteria doesn’t undergo sexual reproduction, it makes it difficult for what to occur?

A

Genetic variation

139
Q

What does genetic variation mean?

A

We have difference in genetics

140
Q

Why or how is genetic variation useful?

A

So if there is a certain thing that can kill them all, they have that variation that protects them from dying all at once

141
Q

Since bacteria doesn’t undergo sexual reproduction, HOW do they achieve this genetic variation? ( 4 )

A
  • mutations
  • transduction
  • transformation
  • conjugation
142
Q

What is mutation?

A

A change in the genotype ( dna sequence )
- in which will change the mRNA

BUT
not always a change in the phenotype

143
Q

Why does a mutation not change a phenotype ?

A

Because we don’t always change the protein

As long as the protein is the same, the phenotype won’t change

144
Q

What is a spontaneous mutation?

A
  • Random, not known cause
  • Error from dna replication
145
Q

What is an induced mutation?

A

Cause by a mutagenic agent ( MUTAGEN )

146
Q

What is the mutagenic agent that causes an induced mutation?

A

mutagen

147
Q

We have 2 types of mutations that can occur in DNA, what are their names?( the big groups )

A
  • point mutation or Base substitution
  • frameshift mutation
148
Q

What’s another name for point mutation?

A

Base substitution

149
Q

What is a point mutation ( base substitution ) ?

A

One base is changed
( ONLY ONE NITROGENOUS BASE )
- example like an adenine being different

150
Q

Can point mutations ( base substitutions ) be divided into more groups, and which ones? (3)

A

Yes

  • silent mutation
  • missense mutation
  • non sense mutation
151
Q

What is a silent mutation ?

A
  • genetic code is degenerate
    ( changes dna but no change protein )
  • but no change occurs in amino acid sequence
152
Q

Does silent mutation affect both genotype and phenotype or only one? And which one?

A

Only one, the genotype

153
Q

What is a missense mutation ?

A
  • one base changes
  • mRNA changes
  • amino acid changes

( ONE AMINO ACID CHANGES )

154
Q

Since the missense mutation changes ONE amino acid in the sequence does it change the entire protein?

A

Yes
(Changes everything & function )

155
Q

What is nonsense mutation ?

A

Changed the base
Sequence in amino acid changes
Creates 1 of the 3 stop codons

156
Q

So is nonsense mutation making a stop codon ?

A

Yes

157
Q

To summarize the 3 point mutations ( base substitution )

A

Silent mutation
- 1 base changes
- no amino acid change

Missense mutation
- 1 base changes
- new/ different amino acid is made

Non sense mutation
- 1 base changes
- makes stop codon & no protein is made

158
Q

What is a frameshift mutation?

A

Adding or deleting one or more nucleotides

159
Q

When you are adding or removing from the DNA, what does that mean?

A

That means you’re adding or removing mRNA nucleotides
- which changes the entire reading frame of amino acids

  • often creates a stop codon
160
Q

What does mutagens mean?

A

Physical or chemical factors that cause a change in the DNA ( a mutation )

161
Q

What are the chemicals that can cause a mutation in mutagen? (3)

A

Alkylating agents
Nitrous acid
Intercalating agents

162
Q

What is the physical method that mutations can undergo for mutagens?

A

Radiation

163
Q

What is a more in depth explanation of radiation in mutation ?

A
  • ionizing ( gamma rays )
  • non ionizing ( UV light )
164
Q

What happens when the UV light hits the dna during radition for mutation to occur?

A

It causes thymine dimers

165
Q

When thymine dimers come out from the UV light hitting it, what happens next in the DNA? We need to what?

A

Repair it

166
Q

What type of repair do we do for the dna during radition?

A

Nucleotide excision repair

Microbiology Exam 2 (10 decks)

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