MICRO Exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Antifungals

A

Attack fungal infections

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2
Q

Antiprotozoals

A

Attack protozoans

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3
Q

Quinine

A

Extracted from the bark of a cinchona tree used for 100s of years but now largely replaced by synthesized quinolines like chloroquine to reduce parasite resistance.

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4
Q

Azole

A

broad-spectrum antifungal agents with complex ringed structure that inhibit ergosterol and cell membrane synthesis

Contains 2 ph groups, a ph group with a Cl and a pentane with two N

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5
Q

Antibacterials

A

Bacterial infection that is treated with an enormous diversity of compounds.

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6
Q

Antivirals

A

Selective toxicity is almost impossible due to the obligate intracellular parasitic nature of viruses
1. Block penetration into the cell
2. Block replication, transcription, or translation of genetic material aka Acyclovir
3. Prevent maturation of viral particles

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7
Q

MIC

A

Minimum inhibitory concentration

Minimum amount of antibiotic needed

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8
Q

Antibiotic resistance

A

Microbes become resistant to certain treatments of antibiotics

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9
Q

Intrinsic resistance

A

cells have an innate or natural resistance to a drug

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10
Q

Tolerance or situational resistance

A

A usually susceptible cell is in a environmental situation where it is no longer susceptible to the drug

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11
Q

Acquired resistance

A

permanent, genetically encoded resistance to an antimicrobial drug

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12
Q

Human opportunistic pathogen

A

Can cause disease by penetrating a break in the skin or through mucous membranes

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13
Q

Nosocomial

A

Hospital acquired infection

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14
Q

Mech of resistance to beta lactams

A
  1. Alternative Enzymes (PBP2A)
  2. Beta-Lactamases
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15
Q

PBP2A

A

A new transpeptidase that helps form the bacterial cell wall

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16
Q

Beta-Lactamases

A

Enzymes produced and secreted by bacteria that degrade all beta-lactam structures.

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17
Q

Clavulanate

A

Inhibitor of beta-lactamases

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18
Q

Summary of Resistance Mech for Acquired resistance

A
  1. Inactivating enzymes (Inactivates AB)
  2. Alternative enzyme (Diff enzyme used)
  3. Target Alteration (Changes binding site)
  4. Decrease uptake (lBlocks entry)
  5. Increase flux (Flushes AB out)
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19
Q

Human microbiota

A

All the microbes that can naturally reside on or within human tissue or fluids

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20
Q

Microbiome

A

Describes the collective genomes of the microbes that reside in an ecological niche

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21
Q

Sites that harbor microbes

A

Skin and mucous membranes
Upper respiratory tract
GI Tract
outer opening of the urethra
External genitalia
Vagina
External ear and canal
External eye

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22
Q

Sites that don’t harbor micorbes

A

All internal tissues and organs
Heart
Liver
Kidneys and bladder
Brain and spinal cord
Muscles
Bones
Ovaries/Testes
Glands
Middle and Inner Ear
Internal Eye
Fluids within an organ or Tissue
Blood
Urine in kidneys, ureters, and bladder
cerebrospinal fluid
Saliva prior to entering the oral cavity
Semen prior to entering the urethra

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23
Q

Axenic Condition

A

Germ-free animals as a way to investigate how essential the microbiota are to human life

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24
Q

Importance of the Microbiota

A
  1. Microbiota provide essential nutrient
  2. Lead to development of health immune system
  3. Microbiota can protect against pathogens
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25
Q

Course of infection

A
  1. Contact- Microbe adheres to body surface
  2. Colonization with microbiota
  3. Invasion of microbe cross lines of defense toxins or virulence factors can assist
  4. Infection- Microbe growing in what should be sterile tissue/fluids which leads to a disease state
  5. Treatment or human defenses fail
    Alternatively
    Infection clears
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26
Q

Infection

A

Microbe penetrates host defenses, and invades sterile tissues/organs and multiplies to cause disease

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27
Q

Disease

A

Defined as any deviation from health

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28
Q

Infectious disease

A

Infection causes damage/disruption to tissues/organs by microbes or their products

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29
Q

Pathogens

A

Organism capable of causing disease in healthy personas with normal immune defenses

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30
Q

Opportunistic pathogens

A

Not pathogenic to a normal health person, also organisms causing disease when the host’s defenses are compromised or when they grow in a part of the body not natural to them

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31
Q

pathogenicity

A

Ability of microbe to establish itself in the host and cause damage/disease

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32
Q

Virulence

A

The degree to which an organism is pathogenic. It determines a microbe’s ability to establish itself and cause damage

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33
Q

Virulence factor

A

Genetically-encoded, structures, characteristics or products of the microbe that contribute to the infection or disease state

Examples:
Invasin, BI antigen, endotoxin, exoenzymes, excreted enzymes

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34
Q

Toxin

A

Also known as exotoxins, a specific chemical products of microbes, promote infection and disease by directly damaging host tissues and disabling the immune system

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35
Q

Exotoxins

A

Proteins with a strong specificity for a target cell and extremely powerful, sometimes deadly effects, generally by damaging the cell membrane and initiating lysis or disrupting intracellular function

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36
Q

Symptom

A

Subjective evidence of disease as sensed by the patient

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37
Q

Asymptomatic

A

Infections that do not produce overt indications, no noticeable symptoms even though the microbe is active in the host tissue

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38
Q

Syndrome

A

When a disease can be identified or described by a defined collection of signs and symptoms

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39
Q

Signs

A

Evidence of disease by an observer

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40
Q

Incubation period

A

Time from initial contact with the infectious agent to the appearance of the first symptoms; the agent is multiplying but the damage is insufficient to cause symptoms; several hours to several years

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41
Q

Prodromal stage

A

vague feelings of discomfort; nonspecific complaints

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42
Q

Period of invasion

A

Multiplies at high levels, becomes well-established; more specific signs and symptoms

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43
Q

Convalescent period

A

As person begins to respond to the infection, symptoms decline. In the event that the patient does not recover and dies the infection is considered terminal.

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44
Q

Communicable

A

Capable of spreading person to person

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45
Q

Contagious

A

How “easy” a infectious disease spreads from person to person

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46
Q

Acute infection

A

Rapid onset with severe but short-lived effects (hours, days, weeks)

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47
Q

Chronic infection

A

Infections that progress and persist over long periods of time (months, years, lifetime)

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48
Q

Latent infection

A

The casual pathogen goes dormant for extended periods of time with no active replication and therefore no host symptoms and signs.

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49
Q

Portal of entry

A

Where the microbe must enter or there is a lesser chance of infection
(Respiratory is the greatest portal of entry)

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50
Q

Infectious does

A

Minimum number of microbes to cause disease

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51
Q

Adhesion

A

Microbes gain a stable foothold at the portal of entry; dependent on binding between specific molecules on the host and pathogen

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52
Q

Phagocytes

A

Engulf pathogens and destroy them by means of enzymes and antimicrobial chemicals.

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53
Q

Local

A

Localized on a spot

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54
Q

Systemic

A

Throughout the body

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55
Q

Focal

A

Growing in one location, causes an infection elsewhere (breaks loose and disseminates)

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56
Q

Polymicrobial

A

Many microbes causing infections

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57
Q

Primary/Secondary

A

First infection was followed by a second infection of different microbes

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58
Q

Latency

A

After the intial symptoms in certain chronic disases, the microbe can periodically become active and produce a recurrent disease; person may or not may shed it during the latent stage

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59
Q

Carrier

A

An individual who inconspicuously shelters a pathogen and spreads it to others.

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60
Q

Asymptomatic carrier

A

Shows no symptoms of the infection and carries the infection

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61
Q

Incubation carrier

A

spread during the incubation period

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62
Q

Convalescent carrier

A

Recuperating without symptoms

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63
Q

Chronic carrier

A

Individual who shelters the infectious agent for a long period

64
Q

Passive carrier

A

A person is infected with a microbe, shows no signs of infection and passes the microbe to a susceptible host

65
Q

Epidemiology

A

Study of the frequency and distribution of disease and other health-related factors in defined human populations, the science that underlies public health

66
Q

Primary functions of the immune system

A

Surveillance
Recognize self from non-self
Destroy the non self material

67
Q

Innate immunity

A

Inborn(innate), genetically encoded, non specific defenses

68
Q

Physical barriers

A

Skin
Mucous membranes (Thick + slimy)
Flushing (tear production, saliva)

69
Q

Chemical barriers

A

Lysozyme (Cleaves Peptidoglycan resulting in lysis)
Defensins (Break up cell/wall membrane of microbes in a non specific way)

70
Q

Cytokines

A

Signaling proteins for the immune system

71
Q

Types of cytokines

A
  1. Interleukins (modulate almost every function of the immune system)
  2. Chemokines (Recruit leukocytes to the site of infection, tissue damage, and inflammation)
  3. Interferons (Interfere with viral replication)
72
Q

Leukocytes

A

Also known as White blood cells; the body’s main internal immune response

73
Q

Bacteremia

A

bacteria in the blood

74
Q

Viremia

A

Viruses in the blood

75
Q

Septicemia

A

Bacteria reproducing in the blood as they spread

76
Q

Toxemia

A

Microbial toxins in the blood

77
Q

Red Blood Cells

A

Carry o2 and Co2

78
Q

Plasmodium Falciparum

A

Also known as Malaria, and it is one of the most infectious diseases in the world today. (carried by arthropods)

Stages of infection:
1. Carried in Arthropod’s saliva which is then injected into the host blood
2. The parasites then circulate to the hosts liver where they develop and release merozoites
3. The merozoites move to the bloodstream where they infect RBC
4. The RBC release merozoites which are taken up by Vectors

79
Q

Vector

A

An animal or instinct that transmits a pathogen from host to host

80
Q

Hematopoiesis

A

Formation of blood cells and stem cell differentiation

81
Q

Cell Differentiation Flowchart

A

Stem cell–> RBC->Leukocytes->Platelets

Leukocytes
1. Most cells (innate immunity)
2. Monocytes —> Macrophages and Dendritic cells
3. Neutrophils
4. Immune cells involved in adaptive immunity (T cells, B cells, and NK cells)

82
Q

Monocytes

A

Phagocytes that rapidly leave circulation to mature into other cell types

83
Q

macrophages

A

Largest phagocyte which is matured from monocytes; Ingest and kill foreign cells, required for specific immune reactions
(Is an Antigen Presenting Cell)

84
Q

Dendritic cell

A

related to macrophages; involved in early immune reactions with foreign matter
(Is an Antigen Presenting Cell)

85
Q

Neutrophils

A

Phagocytes that are active engulfers and killers of bacteria (die plus turn into pus)

86
Q

Platelets

A

Involved in blood clotting and inflammation

87
Q

Phagocytes

A

perform phagocytosis to recognize self from nonself. Then, Attack and ingest microbes in a non-specific matter

88
Q

PRRS

A

Pattern Recognition Receptors; Displayed by leukocytes on their membranes. Encoded in the germline of the host, aka Toll-like receptors (TLR)

Can recognize a range of pathogens + molecule types

89
Q

PAMPS

A

Pathogen Associated Molecular Patterns; Recognized by PRR on Leukocytes which causes it to target the pathogen for destruction.

90
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Ingestion and Destruction by WBC

  1. Chemotoxis- Phagocyte recognizes pathogen
  2. PRR recognizes PAMP
  3. Ingest pathogen; Phagolysosome formation
  4. Destroy pathogen; Neutrophils expel or die plus turns to pus; Exocytosis of cellular debris
  5. Macrophages plus dendritic cells become antigen-presenting cells (APC)
91
Q

Lymphatic system

A

Part of circulatory system with vessels, cells, and accessory organs.

92
Q

Lymph

A

A plasmalike liquid carried by the lymphatic circulation

93
Q

Thymus gland

A

Two lobes in the pharyngeal region near the tip of the sternum, required in children for proper WBC development (specifically T cells) which help your body fight disease and infections

94
Q

Lymph nodes

A

small, encapsulated, bean-shaped at various locations in the body, specialized for filtering our materials in the lymph and contains WBC to fight infections. Contain macrophages and dendritic cells for antigen presentation

95
Q

Spleen

A

The lymphoid organ in the upper portion of the abdominal cavity below the diaphragm serves as a filter for blood and worn-out RBCs, and also filters pathogens from the blood to be phagocytosed by macrophages. Contains specialized macrophages and dendritic cells crucial for antigen presentation

96
Q

Mast cells

A

Detect injury to nearby cells and release histamine, initiating an inflammatory response

97
Q

Histamine

A

Increases blood flow to the wound site, and increased vascular permeability allows fluid, proteins, phagocytes, and other immune cells to enter infected tissue.

98
Q

SHARP

A

Swelling
Heat
Altered Function
Redness
Pain

99
Q

Inflammation

A

A reaction to traumatic events in the tissues that attempts to restore homeostasis

100
Q

Acute inflammation

A

Resolves in days/weeks and results in tissue repair

101
Q

Chronic inflammation

A

Leads to changes where leukocytes are repeatedly deposited in new connective tissue at the site of inflammation, causing permanent damage.

102
Q

Shock

A

Collapse of circulatory and respiratory systems

103
Q

Fever

A

An inflammatory response that extends beyond the site of infection; abnormally high body temp

Benefits:
An increase in Body temp makes it harder for microbe to survive
Stimulates immune system further

104
Q

Pyrogen

A

Causes the hypothalamus to reset which increases body temperature; signals muscles to increase heat production and vasoconstriction

105
Q

Immunocompetence

A

Ability of human to mount a “normal” immune response

106
Q

Adaptive immunity

A

Extremely specific immune response of humans for resisting infectious agents
Two features that differentiate it from innate immunity:
Memory and Specificity

-Discriminates well between self and nonself
-Enormous diversity (receptors and antibodies) that can recognize trillions of antigens
-Specific, unique response to each pathogen and/or antigen
-remembers previous exposures to antigens to mount stronger subsequent response

107
Q

Specificity

A

Antibodies produced, function only against the antigen that they were produced in response to

108
Q

Memory

A

Lymphocytes are programmed to “recall” their first encounter with an antigen and respond rapidly to subsequent encounters

109
Q

Antigen

A

Molecules that are recognized by Tcells or Bcells; very specific interactions

110
Q

Epitopes

A

Complex with multiple chemical features

111
Q

Antigenicity

A

How good or bad a Antigen is

112
Q

Poor antigens are

A

Small simple molecules not attached to a carrier molecule and simple large molecules (repetitive chains of monomers)

113
Q

B cells

A

Production and actions of antibodies in response to the antigen.
-Matured in bone marrow
-Stored in Lymph node until needed
-Reacts with only one antigen

114
Q

T cells

A

responses to the APCs.
-Matured in Thymus
-Stored in Lymph node until needed
-Reacts with only one antigen

115
Q

Clonal Selection Theory

A

Undifferentiated lymphocytes in embryo and fetus undergo a continuous series of divisions and genetic changes that generate millions of different cell types, each with a particular/unique receptor specificity.

  1. Clone that recognizes self is eliminated
  2. Clone that “fits” with the antigen is selected and triggers clonal expansion plus cytokines are released
  3. A monoclonal population is created
116
Q

Clone

A

A pool of cells all with a unique cell surfacer receptor

117
Q

Monoclonal

A

A population deriving from a single progenitor cell

B cells: Plasma and memory cells
T cells: CD8 Cytotoxic T cells, CD4 T helper cells, T memory cells

118
Q

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)

A

Cell surface proteins encoded in the DNA region

-Encodes a set of cell surface proteins (receptors) essential for the acquired immune system in the recognition of self and in rejection of foreign molecules.
- Found on all cells except RBCs
-Also known as the Human Leukocyte antigen (HLA) system

119
Q

Class I MHC

A

Genes code for markers that display unique characteristics of self and allow recognition of self molecules and regulation of immune reactions

120
Q

Class II MHC

A

Genes code for immune regulatory receptors found on antigen-presenting cells (macrophages, dendritic cells and B cells)

121
Q

B cells (or B lymphocytes)

A

The production and actions of antibodies in response to the antigen

122
Q

T lymphocyte (T cells)

A

Respond to the APCs.

-Release cytokines, which can induce lysis or apoptosis, can stimulate B-cell maturation.
-Target abnormal cells (cancer cells, damaged, transplanted, cells infected with the pathogen)
-T cell receptors are formed in a similar manner to B cells with genetic modification, having variable and constant regions, much smaller
-Unlike B-cell receptors, T cell receptors are small, not secreted.

123
Q

Plasma cells

A

Antibody factories

124
Q

Memory cells

A

long-lived cells capable of quickly producing more effector cells

125
Q

MHC II receptor pathway

A
  1. Clonal Selection and Antigen binding
    - B cells independently recognize microbes and their foreign antigens
  2. Antigen processing and presentation
    - Once the microbe is attached, the B cell endocytoses it, processes it into smaller protein units, and displays these in the MHC II complex
  3. B cell/T helper cell cooperation and recognition
    - For most B cells to become functional, they must interact with a T helper cell that bears receptors for antigens from the same microbe
  4. B-Cell Activation
    - The T cell gives off additional signals in the form of interleukins and B cell growth factors
    5-6 Clonal Expansion/Memory Cells
    - The activated B cell undergoes numerous mitotic divisions, which expand the clone of cells bearing this specificity and produce memory + plasma cells
  5. Plasma Cells/Antibody Synthesis
    - The plasma cells are short-lived, active secretory cells that synthesize and release antibodies.
126
Q

Antiserum

A

Serum of blood containing specific antibodies

127
Q

Primary response

A

A latent period with no measurable antibody occurs early on. The first antibody to appear is IgM, followed later by IgG arising from the activation of the first memory cells. Within weeks, the titer tapers back to low levels.

128
Q

Secondary response

A

A latent period is lacking because other memory lymphocytes from the earlier response are immediately ready to react. A rapid rise in antibody tier, mainly of IgG, is sustained for several weeks. A smaller amount of IgM is also produced by naive B cells

Advantage:
faster response and higher titer of antibodies to antigen

129
Q

Principle activity of antibodies

A

Unite with, immobilize, call attention to, or neutralize the Ag for which it was formed

130
Q

Viral Inhibition

A

Antibodies react with molecules at the viral surface and prevent the viral attachment to cells

131
Q

Neutralization

A

Antibodies combine specifically with toxins (or microbes), thereby neutralizing them, and preventing attachment to cells

132
Q

Opsonization

A

Antibodies (called opsonins)
coat bacterial cells, preventing bacterial attachment to cells.

133
Q

Agglutination

A

Antibodies combine with antigens on the cell wall surface and bind the cells together or restrict their movement

134
Q

Precipitation

A

Antibodies combine with dissolved antigens to form lattice-like arrangements that precipitate out of solution

135
Q

T helper cells (CD4)

A

Recognize MHC II + antigen to trigger cytokine production

136
Q

Killer T Cells (CD8)

A

Recognize MHC-1 + antigen and target the cell for destruction

137
Q

Antigen Presenting cell (APC)

A

Dendritic cells, T helper cells, B cells

138
Q

T memory cells (CD4)

A

Stored in lymph nodes and protect against future encounters with same antigen

139
Q

Interleukins

A

released by the activated T cell which assists other lymphocytes in their functions

Interleukin I - cytokine released by APC to activate T helper cells
Interleukin II - cytokine produced by T helper cells to activate B and other T cells

140
Q

Clonal expansion

A

A period of meiotic division which causes effector T cells, memory T cells and other T cell types

141
Q

Natural immunity

A

Acquired as part of normal life expierences

142
Q

Artificial immunity

A

Acquired through medical procedures like a vaccine (also called immunization)

143
Q

Active immunity

A

Results when a person develops their own immune response to an antigen that stimulates the production of antibodies; creates memory cells, takes time, and is lasting

144
Q

Passive immunity

A

Pre-formed antibodies are by one individual and donated to another individual; does not create memory, acts immediately, and is short term

145
Q

Immunization

A

Providing immunity through medical procedure

146
Q

Vaccines

A

A killed or weakened form of a virus or bacteria, which trains our bodies to recognize and fight the disease if we encounter it in the future

Can be administered orally, injected, or nasal

147
Q

Recombinant vaccines

A

Plasmid with gene for surface antigen is cloned in a vector which produces Recombinant antigens that stimulate immune response without direct contact with the virus

148
Q

Attenuated Vaccine

A

Live virus has its virulence eliminated or reduced, which is then introduced to the patient who forms immunity without gaining the disease

149
Q

Killed Vaccine

A

A killed microbe has retained its antigenicity, which is then introduced to a patient who forms a immune response without getting sick

150
Q

A cellular vaccine

A

The antigenic surface molecules are separated from the virus and used to create a vaccine with no intact pathogen present.

151
Q

Adjuvant

A

A compound to enhance immunogenicity and prolong retention of antigen

152
Q

Herd Immunity

A

Occurs when a large portion of the community becomes immune to a disease. The spread of disease from person to person becomes unlikely when herd immunity is achieved.

153
Q

Drug resistance

A

An adaptive response in which microorganisms begin to tolerate an amount of drug that would normally be inhibitory

154
Q

Transformation

A

Transfer of free DNA

155
Q

Conjugation

A

Plasmid Transfer

156
Q

Transduction

A

Transfer by viral delivery