Memory Encoding and Consolidation

Question 1

What does encoding refer too?

Answer 1

Storage of information into long term basis

Question 2

What does consolidation refer too?

Answer 2

Strengthening of information into long-term memory

Question 3

What is the levels of processing theory?

Answer 3

Craig and Lockhard - retrieval is enhanced by deeper encoding (meaningful) compared to shallow encoding (physical characteristics)

Question 4

Craig and Tulving - experiment

Answer 4

Proportion of words recognised increase with depth of incoming, manipulated:
shallow encoding - is the word capitalised
deeper encoding - does the word rhyme
deepest encoding - does the word fit in a sentence

Found - proportion increased with levels of processing

Question 5

Evidence of levels of processing theory

Answer 5

Recall is enhanced by deeper processing through:
embedding words in complex sentences
creating visual mental imagery
self reference - does this word describe you?
generating information - generate words related to given words
organisation - organising words into categories
the testing effect - learning information by testing yourself

Question 6

Evaluation of levels of processing theory

Answer 6

It is useful in explaining memory tools such as elaboration, distinctiveness of processing

But..
difficult to define depth of processing
descriptive not explanatory - is it the brain?
doesn’t take into account relevance of the processing method to the memory test

Question 7

Ways of enhancing memory (5)

Answer 7

Encoding specificity principle
State dependent encoding
Transfer appropriate processing
Spacing effect
Sleep

Question 8

Encoding specificity principle

Answer 8

Encoding is enhanced when the retrieval context matches the encoding context

Question 9

Evidence for the encoding specificity principle

Answer 9

Godden and Baddeley
asked pots to recall words, encoded/tested on land or underwater. When conditions match, they remember more

Grant et al - encoded in short or noisy, took a short answer test in short conditions or noisy conditions. Encoding was better when match

Question 10

State dependent encoding

Answer 10

Retrieval is enhanced when peoples internal state during encoding and retrieval matches

Question 11

Evidence for state dependent encoding

Answer 11

Eich and Metcalfe
Played happy or sad music and asked to think about happy or sad thoughts
Recall more when matched

Question 12

Transfer appropriate processing

Answer 12

Retrieval is enhanced if the memory test is consistent with the method of encoding

Question 13

Evidence for transfer appropriate processing

Answer 13

Morris et al
Coded either semantically or rhyming
Then given standard recognition test or rhyming
Match of test increases the proportion of words recognised

Question 14

Spacing effect

Answer 14

If learn materials over different intervals, retrieval is enhanced

Question 15

Sleep effect

Answer 15

Sleeping shortly after encoding enhances retrieval

Question 16

What are the two types of amnesia?

Answer 16

Retrograde amnesia

Anterograde amnesia

Question 17

What is retrograde amnesia?

Answer 17

Problems remembering events prior to the onset of amnesia, past events

Question 18

What is anterograde amnesia?

Answer 18

EncImpairment in ability to remember new information learned after the onset of amnesia

Question 19

What are the theories of amnesia?

Answer 19

Encoding deficit
Retrieval deficit
Theory of consolidation
Multiple trace theory

Question 20

Theories of encoding - encoding deficit

Answer 20

Amnesia is caused by not being able to encode info
explains retrograde amnesia as an ongoing deficit, when people can’t remember things in the past, it is because their amnesia started a long time ago
not supported by retrograde amnesia in patients with sudden onset

Question 21

Theories of encoding - retrieval deficit

Answer 21

Amnesia is caused by a retrieval deficit
Both types are caused by inability to retrieve memories
Not supported by differing levels of amnesia across patients and some isolated cases of each

Question 22

Theory of consolidation

Answer 22

Squire: 2 stages

1. an initial memory trace is created within a few seconds
2. over several years, the memory trace is strengthened by further consolidation involving the hippocampus

Question 23

What does the theory of consolidation explain?

Answer 23

Retrogade amnesia of 2-3 years with mainly anterograde amnesia - due to impairment to consolidation by hippocampus - can’t consolidate memories

But Retrograde amnesia spanning many years is due to a retrieval deficit

Question 24

Multiple trace theory

Answer 24

Nadel and Moscovitch - over time, episodic memories are converted to semantic memories via the hippocampus
Episodic memory retrieval is dependent on the hippocampus, semantic memory retrieval is independent of the hippocampus

Impairment to hippocampus will prevent conversion of episodic to semantic

Question 25

Which theory is correct?

Answer 25

The evidence is inconclusive

Question 26

What is a temporal gradient in amnesia?

Answer 26

Retrograde amnesia often presents with better memory for older memories than more recent memories

Question 27

What explains the temporal gradient?

Answer 27

Standard model of consolidation: older memories are strengthened by secondary consolidation over years, but new memories can’t undergo consolidation if hippocampus sustains damage

Multiple trace model - older memories are converted to semantic memories so are not dependent on the hippocampus, newer memories are episodic and dependent on hippocampus for retrieval

Question 28

Preserved memory function

Answer 28

Lots of things preserved in amnesia (procedural, repetition priming, know, semantic) but a few exceptions

Question 29

How do we explain the pattern of preserved memory function?

Answer 29

Pattern of preserved memory systems relates to implicit memory - implicit memory is still reserved

Pattern of preserved and impaired memory is due to separate memory processing systems - fractionation