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Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is meant by “coding” in memory?

A

Coding refers to the format or ‘type’ of information stored in each memory store. In STM, coding is acoustic, while in LTM, it is semantic.

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2
Q

What study demonstrated the differences in coding between STM and LTM?

A

Baddeley (1966) showed that STM recall is affected by acoustically-similar words, whereas LTM recall is affected by semantically-similar words.

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3
Q

What is the capacity of STM, according to Miller?

A

The capacity of STM is 7 ± 2 items, based on Miller’s theory of chunking

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4
Q

What did Jacobs discover about digit and letter span?

A

Jacobs found that the mean digit span was 9.3, and the mean letter span was 7.3.

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5
Q

What is the capacity of LTM?

A

The capacity of LTM is thought to be unlimited.

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6
Q

What is the duration of STM, and who demonstrated this?

A

The duration of STM is 18-30 seconds, as shown by Petersen et al. (1959) using a consonant syllable recall task.

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7
Q

How is the duration of LTM demonstrated, and what is its approximate length?

A

Bahrick et al. (1975) showed LTM duration is unlimited by demonstrating high recall of classmates after 15 and even 46 years.

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8
Q

What did Petersen et al. (1959) conclude about STM?

A

Increasing retention intervals (preventing rehearsal) significantly reduces accuracy in STM recall.

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9
Q

What is a criticism of early memory studies like Jacobs’?

A

Early studies lacked standardisation and control, potentially allowing extraneous variables to affect results.

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10
Q

How does Miller’s capacity estimate differ from more recent research?

A

Recent studies suggest STM capacity is closer to 4 chunks, not the 5-9 proposed by Miller.

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11
Q

What are the evaluation points for research into coding,capacity and duration?

A

+) Strength of Barick et al’s study is high ecological validity
-) Petersen and Miller studies have low mundane realism
-) Miller’s estimate was exaggerated

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12
Q

How is a Barick et al’s study having low ecological validity a strength of research into coding, capacity and duration?

A

P - high ecological valdiity
Ev - used meaningful stimuli like classmate photos
Ex - reflects real-life learning situations, increasing generalisability
L - suggests findings are highly applicable to everyday memory

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13
Q

How is Petersen et al study and Miller’s study having low mundane realism a limitation of research into coding, capacity and duration?

A

P - These studies have low mundane realism.
Ev - Petersen used consonant syllables, and Miller used artificial stimuli.
Ex - These do not reflect how memory is used in real-life learning.
L - Findings may lack ecological validity and are harder to generalise.

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14
Q

How is Miller’s STM capacity being exaggerated a limitation of research into coding, capacity and duration?

A

P - Miller’s 7 ± 2 estimate may be exaggerated.
Ev - Recent research suggests a smaller capacity of 4 chunks.
Ex - This may be due to outdated methods and lack of control over variables.
L - Findings may need revising to reflect more accurate, modern estimates.

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15
Q

What is the Multi-Store Model (MSM) of memory?

A

The MSM explains how memory is stored, transferred, retrieved, and forgotten, with three main stores: sensory register, STM, and LTM.

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16
Q

What is the sensory register in the MSM?

A

The sensory register receives input from the senses, has a huge capacity, but a very short duration of less than half a second.

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17
Q

What must occur for information to pass from the sensory register to STM?

A

Attention must be paid to the sensory input for it to transfer into STM.

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18
Q

How is STM encoded, and what are its capacity and duration?

A

STM is acoustically encoded, with a capacity of 7 ± 2 items (Miller) and a duration of 18-30 seconds (Petersen).

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19
Q

What role does maintenance rehearsal play in the MSM?

A

Repeating information allows it to stay in STM, while prolonged maintenance rehearsal transfers it into LTM.

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20
Q

What are the characteristics of LTM in the MSM?

A

LTM is semantically encoded, has an unlimited capacity, and can last over 46 years (Bahrick et al.).

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21
Q

What is retrieval in the context of MSM?

A

Retrieval is when information from LTM is transferred back into STM for use, continuing through the maintenance loop.

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22
Q

What are the types of LTM identified by Tulving?

A

Tulving proposed procedural (unconscious), semantic (conscious), and episodic memory types, which are not differentiated in the MSM.

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23
Q

What does Craik and Watkins (1973) suggest about rehearsal?

A

They propose that elaborative rehearsal, linking new information to existing knowledge, is more important than prolonged rehearsal for transferring STM to LTM.

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24
Q

How does the MSM differentiate between STM and LTM?

A

The MSM highlights qualitative differences, such as STM being acoustically encoded with short duration, and LTM being semantically encoded with long duration.

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25
Q

What are the evaluation points for the multi-store model?

A

-) Tulving found 3 different types of LTM
+) accurately distinguishes between STM and LTM
-) KF case study showed there are different types of STM

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26
Q

What does research on STM by Shallice and Warrington suggest about the MSM?

A

Point**: MSM incorrectly represents STM as a unitary store.
Evidence: KF’s case showed poor auditory STM recall but intact visual STM, suggesting multiple STM types.
Explanation: This contradicts the MSM’s single-store view of STM.
Link: It indicates the MSM lacks complexity in explaining STM processes.

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27
Q

How is MSM only having 1 LTM store a limitation of MSM?

A

Back: Point: MSM fails to account for different types of LTM.
Evidence: Tulving identified procedural (unconscious) and semantic (conscious) memory types, which the MSM does not reflect.
Explanation: This challenges the MSM’s view of LTM as a single, unitary store.
Link: It suggests the MSM oversimplifies LTM.

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28
Q

What does research on STM by Shallice and Warrington suggest about the MSM?

A

Point: MSM incorrectly represents STM as a unitary store.
Evidence: KF’s case showed poor auditory STM recall but intact visual STM, suggesting multiple STM types.
Explanation: This contradicts the MSM’s single-store view of STM.
Link: It indicates the MSM lacks complexity in explaining STM processes.

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29
Q

What are the three types of long-term memory (LTM)?

A

: Episodic, semantic, and procedural memory.

30
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

Episodic memory involves personal memories, including details about when and how events occurred and associated people and places (e.g., a wedding).

31
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

Semantic memory involves knowledge of the world, including meanings of words, concepts, and themes (e.g., using one concept to understand another).

32
Q

What is procedural memory?

A

Procedural memory involves memories of learned skills, such as swimming or driving, and is recalled unconsciously.

33
Q

Which types of LTM are recalled consciously, and which are recalled unconsciously?

A

Episodic and semantic memories are recalled consciously, while procedural memories are recalled unconsciously.

34
Q

What did Petersen et al. discover about episodic and semantic memory?

A

Episodic memories are recalled from the right prefrontal cortex, and semantic memories are recalled from the left prefrontal cortex.

35
Q

What practical application does understanding types of LTM have?

A

Belleville et al. noted that understanding episodic memory can help develop treatments for mild cognitive impairments, which often affect episodic memory.

36
Q

How do Cohen and Squire classify long-term memory?

A

They distinguish between declarative memory (episodic and semantic, recalled consciously) and non-declarative memory (procedural, recalled unconsciously).

37
Q

How do HM and Clive Wearing’s cases support types of LTM?

A

They show that episodic memory can be impaired while procedural and semantic memories remain intact, supporting the idea of separate LTM types.

38
Q

What example from Clive Wearing’s case illustrates different types of LTM?

A

Clive Wearing could still play the piano (procedural) and understand music (semantic) but couldn’t recall recent events (episodic).

39
Q

What are the evaluation points for types of LTM?

A

+) research support from Petersen et al says that there are different types of LTM
-)LTM types may be too similar to be distinct
+) case studies show that LTM types are distinct

40
Q

How is research support from Petersen et al a strength of types of long term memory?

A

Front: What neurological evidence supports the existence of different LTM types?
Back: Point: Petersen et al. demonstrated different neurological bases for LTM types.
Evidence: Episodic memory is recalled from the right prefrontal cortex, and semantic memory from the left prefrontal cortex.
Explanation: This supports the idea that LTM types are separate.
Link: It provides biological evidence for Tulving’s classification of LTM.

41
Q

How is LTM memory types being too similar to be distinct a limitation of types of LTM?

A

P -similarity between types of LTM suggests they may not be truly distinct
Ev - episodic and semantic memories are both declarative and episodic memories can transform into semantic memories over time. Also, semantic and procedural memory is linked as we can think clearly usinf knoiwledge (SMNTC) without thinking about every word (procedural)
Ex - overlap between LTM challenges idea they are separate
L - suggests boundaries between LTM types may not have been clear as Tulving originlly thought

42
Q

How do case studies of HM and Clive Wearing support that LTM has different types of LTM?

A

Front: How do HM and Clive Wearing’s cases support LTM classification?
Back: Point: Case studies show the separation of LTM types.
Evidence: Clive Wearing retained procedural (e.g., playing piano) and semantic memory but lost episodic memory.
Explanation: This demonstrates that different areas of the brain are involved in separate LTM types.
Link: The evidence strengthens the idea that LTM is not a unitary system.

43
Q

What does the Working Memory Model (WMM) suggest about short-term memory (STM)?

A

STM is made up of four components: the central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.

44
Q

What is the role of the central executive in the WMM?

A

The central executive is an attentional process with a very limited capacity, responsible for allocating tasks to the three slave systems.

45
Q

What is the phonological loop?

A

It processes auditory information and enables maintenance rehearsal. It consists of the phonological store (stores the words you hear) and the articulatory process (repeats them silently).

46
Q

What does the visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS) do?

A

It processes visual and spatial information, creating a ‘complete picture.’ It is divided into the visual cache (stores visual data) and the inner scribe (records spatial arrangements).

47
Q

What is the capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

A

: The capacity is about 4-5 chunks, according to Baddeley.

48
Q

What is the episodic buffer?

A

: The episodic buffer integrates information from the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and LTM, acting as a storage component for the central executive.

49
Q

How is the lack of clarity regarding the CE a limitation of the WMM?

A

Point: The central executive is not precisely defined.
Evidence: It is described vaguely as an ‘attentional process,’ and it is unclear if it is made of sub-components or part of a larger system.
Explanation: This lack of clarity reduces the accuracy and reliability of the WMM.
Link: It suggests the model’s depiction of the central executive is incomplete.

50
Q

What are the evaluation points for the WMM?

A

+) research evidence from S+W
-) CE lacks clarity
+) dual task performance studies support

51
Q

How is research evidence from Shallice and Warrington a strength of the WMM?

A

Point: research evidence from Shallice and Warrington
Evidence: KF had poor STM recall for auditory stimuli but good recall for visual stimuli, so auditory and visual are separate stores
Explanation: This aligns with the WMM’s distinction between the phonological loop (auditory) and the visuo-spatial sketchpad (visual),
Link: It strengthens the validity of the WMM.

52
Q

How does dual-task performance support the WMM?

A

Point: Dual-task performance studies show the central executive has limited capacity.
Evidence: Performance decreases when participants perform a visual and verbal task simultaneously.
Explanation: This suggests the central executive cannot manage high cognitive loads, as predicted by the WMM.
Link: It supports the model’s depiction of the central executive and the competition between slave systems

53
Q

What does McGeoch and McDonald’s study suggest about the relationship between similarity and forgetting?

A

: There is a positive correlation between the extent of forgetting and the similarity of the interfering materials.

53
Q

What are the two types of interference?

A

Retroactive interference: New memories block the recollection of old memories.
Proactive interference: Old memories block the recollection of new memories.

54
Q

What is interference in memory?

A

Interference occurs when the recall of one memory blocks the recall of another, leading to forgetting or distorted perceptions.

55
Q

What did McGeoch and McDonald (1931) demonstrate about retroactive interference?

A

Participants who learned a list of synonyms recalled an average of 3.1 fewer correct items compared to a control group, showing that greater similarity between materials leads to more forgetting.

56
Q

How does Baddeley and Hitch’s study of rugby players support interference theory?

A

Players who played more games experienced more interference, making it harder to recall earlier games. This is an example of retroactive interference.

57
Q

What are the evaluation points for explanations for forgetting?

A

+) lab studies
-) interference studies do not reflect real life
-) lacks mundane realism

58
Q

How is interference studies not reflecting real life a limitation?

A

Point: Many interference studies are conducted in short time intervals.
Evidence: Participants recall information 1-2 hours after learning it, unlike real life, where recall often occurs days later (e.g., during exams).
Explanation: This may overstate the impact of interference, as real-life forgetting may involve other factors.
Link: This suggests interference might not fully explain forgetting from LTM in real-world scenarios.

59
Q

How are lab studies a strength of interferene?

A

Point: Lab studies provide strong evidence for interference.
Evidence: They use highly controlled conditions, standardised instructions, and eliminate confounding variables.
Explanation: This ensures that the findings are reliable and accurately reflect the impact of interference on memory.
Link: The consistent demonstration of interference increases the theory’s validity.

60
Q

How is interference studies not reflecting real life a limitation of interference?

A

Point: Many interference studies are conducted in short time intervals.
Evidence: Participants recall information 1-2 hours after learning it, unlike real life, where recall often occurs days later (e.g., during exams).
Explanation: This may overstate the impact of interference, as real-life forgetting may involve other factors.
Link: This suggests interference might not fully explain forgetting from LTM in real-world scenarios.

61
Q

What is retrieval failure in memory?

A

Retrieval failure occurs when the cues present at encoding are not available at recall, leading to forgetting.

62
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle (ESP)?

A

The ESP, proposed by Tulving, suggests that information is best recalled when the cues at encoding match those at retrieval

63
Q

What are the two types of retrieval failure?

A

Context-dependent forgetting: External cues at encoding differ from those at recall.
State-dependent forgetting: Internal cues at encoding differ from those at recall.

64
Q

How did Godden and Baddeley (1975) demonstrate context-dependent forgetting?

A

Deep-water divers recalled more words when the encoding and recall environments matched (e.g., both underwater or both on land).

65
Q

How did Carter and Cassaday (1998) demonstrate state-dependent forgetting?

A

Participants on anti-histamines had 40% higher recall accuracy when their internal states at encoding and recall matched.

66
Q

What are the evaluation points for retrieval failure?

A

+) strong experimental support
-) lacks ecological validity
-) not a universal explanation

67
Q

How is retrieval failure not being a universal explanation a limitation of retrieval failure

A

Point: It does not apply to all types of memory.
Evidence: Godden and Baddeley found no differences in recognition tasks, suggesting retrieval failure mainly affects recall.
Explanation: This shows retrieval failure is limited to specific memory types and contexts.
Link: Its scope is narrow, reducing generalizability.

68
Q

How is retrieval failure lacking ecological validity a limitation f retireval failure?

A

Point: Retrieval failure studies may not reflect real-life memory processes.
Evidence: Baddeley argued that conditions like water and land are rare in everyday life.
Explanation: Retrieval failure may only apply to distinct situations, limiting its relevance for day-to-day forgetting.
Link: This weakens its applicability outside experimental settings.

69
Q
A

Point: Retrieval failure is supported by studies with strict controls.
Evidence: Eysenck emphasized its importance, with lab experiments reducing confounding variables.
Explanation: This increases confidence in conclusions and the validity of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting.
Link: Findings are reliable due to controlled methodologies

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