Issues and Debates Flashcards
What are the evaluation points for Gender bias?
-) gender differences are fixed and enduring
C.P -> research support for popular stereotype - multitasking
-) promotes sexism in research process
-) research challenging bias may not be published
How is gender differences being given as fixed and enduring a limitation?
P - gender differences are given as fixed and enduring
Ev - Maccoby and Jacklin (1974). concluded girls have better verbal ability and boys have better spatial ability - due to biological brain differences
Ex - suggests we should be wary of accepting research as biological facts when it might be better explained as a social steretoype
How is research support on multi-tasking a counterpoint of gender differences being seen as fixed and enduring?
P - research may supports popular stereotype that females are better at multi-tasking
Ev - Ingalhalikar said women’s hemispheres are better connected than males so there may be some biological truth
Ex - may be biological differences - still should be wary of exaggerating the effect they may have on behaviour
How is pomoting sexism a limitation of gender bias?
P - promotes sexism in research process
Ev - Murphy et al (2014) women underrepresented in university departments so research more likely to be conducted by males disadvantaging females
Ex - male researcher may expect female participant to be irrational, unable to complete tasks -> underperform
L - institutional structures / methods of psychology produce gender-biased findings
How is research challenging bias not being published a limitation of gender bias?
P - research challenging gender bias doesnt get published
Ev - Formaowicz et al (2008) analysed 1000 articles relating to gender bias, this research is funded less, published by less prestigous journals
Ex - still held true when gender compared to other biases
L - suggests gender bias in psychological research not taken as seriously as other forms of bias
What is universality?
- facts about human behaviour
- that are objective, value-free and consistent
- across time and culture
What is alpha bias?
Exaggerates differences between sexes
What does alpha bias do to women?
- Sometimes heightens value of women
- more likely to devalue females rather than males
What is gender bias?
- Psychological theory/ research
- may not accurately represent the experience and behaviour of men and women.
What is an example of alpha bias favouring males?
Freud (1905)
- claimed children in phallic stage desire opposite sex parent
- resolved by identification with same-sex parent
- girl’s identification is weaker -> weaker superego
- so weaker moral development
What is an example of alpha bias favouring females?
- Chodorow (1968)
- said daughters and mothers more connected than mother and son
- because of biological similarities
- so women develop better bonds and empathy for others
What is beta bias?
Theories that ignore or minimise differences between the sexes
What is an example of beta bias?
fight / flight research based on men
- assumed to be universal response to threat
- Taylor et al 2000 said females have a tend and befriend response
- controlled by oxytocin - more in females than males
- reduces fight/flight response
- evolved response for caring for young
What is androcentrism?
Male centred; when normal behaviour is judged according to a male standard
??????
psychology is male dominated
6/100 famous psychologists = female
What is an example of adrocentrism?
PMS medicalises female emotions by explaining them in hormonal terms - feminists object
- but male anger is a rational response to external pressures
What are evaluations points for cultural bias?
-) many infleucntial studies are culturally biased
C.P - research support not case anymore
+) emergence of cultural psychology
-) ethnic stereotyping
How is many influential studies being culturally biased a limitation of cultural bias
P - many influential studies are culturally-biased
Ev - Asch + Milgram used US white participants and replications of studies in other countries produced diffferent results. Asch - collectivist cultures found higher conformity.
Ex - our understanding of topics like social influence should only be applied to individualistic cultures
L - influential studies not useful IAPAIAPATT
How is research support a counterpoint for u=influential studies being culturally biased
P - Research support
Ev - Takano and Oksana (1999) found 14/15 studies compared China + US found no evidence of individualism/ collectivism
Ex - means distinction is simplistic
L - cultural bias is not that big of an issue in recent research
How is the emergence of cultural psychology a strength of cultural bias?
P - emergence of cultural psychology
Ev - Study of how people shape and are shaped by their cultural experience.
Ex - research conducted inside a culture, with local researchers using culturally based techniques, fewer cultures used when comparing differences
L - modern psychologists are mindful of dangers of cultural bias, taking steps to avoid it
How is ethnic stereotyping a limitation of cultural bias?
P - ethnic stereotyping
Ev - Gould (1981) explained how 1st IQ test led to eugenic social policies in America. WW1 psychologists given IQ test, ethnocentric test items US presidents e.g. South Eastern Europe and African Americans scored lowest, deemed genetically inferior
Ex - illustrates how cultural bias can be used to justify prejudice, discrimination towards ethnic and cultural groups
What name coined by Heinrich et al describes the group that are most likely to be studied in psychology?
Westernised
Educated people from
Industrialised
Rich
Democracies
What is an etic approach?
approach looks at behaviour from outside a given culture and identifies behaviours that are universal
Which researcher used an etic approach?
Ainsworth
studied behaviour in a single culture (America) abd then assumed that their ideal attachment type could be applied universally
What is an emic approach?
approach functions from inside a culture and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture
What is ethnocentrism?
The belief that our own group or culture is superior to all other groups or cultures
What is an example of ethnocentrism?
Ainsworth’s suggested secure attachment was a baby showing moderate distress when separated by mother
- in Japan, babies are rarely left alone so would be insecurely attached for showing distress on separation
What is cultural relativism?
judging a culture using its own standards instead of your own
How is free will having practical value a strength of free will?
P - A strength of free will is its practical value.
Ev - Roberts et al. (2000) found that adolescents who believed in fatalism, that their lives were controlled by external events, were more likely to develop depression.
Ex - Those with an internal locus of control are more optimistic.
L - This suggests that believing in free will can positively impact mental health and behavior.
How is determinism having a role of responsibility in law a limitation of determinism?
P - Determinism has a role in responsibility in law.
Ev - The hard determinist stance is inconsistent with the legal system, where offenders are held responsible for their actions.
Ex - The legal system assumes defendants exercised free will in committing crimes.
L - This suggests determinist arguments don’t apply in real-world legal contexts.
How is evidence supporting determinism and not free will a limitation of free will?
P - Evidence supports determinism, not free will.
Ev - Libet et al. (1983) found brain activity occurred half a second before participants consciously decided to move.
Ex - Participants were unaware of brain activity that preceded their decision.
L - This suggests our sense of free will may be determined by unconscious brain processes.
How is having conscious control a counter of the idea that we have evidence that doesnt support free will but supports determinism?
P - Conscious awareness of decisions supports free will.
Ev - People become aware of decisions milliseconds after they start acting, suggesting they may have made the decision to act.
Ex - Our conscious awareness is a read-out of unconscious decision-making processes.
L - This suggests that evidence against free will may not be appropriate as a challenge to it.
What is the debate of free will vs determinism?
Argues is behaviour a matter of free will or are we the product of internal and/or external influences?
What is free will?
suggests humans are free to make their own choices
view of HA approach
implies we can reject biological and environmental influences on our behaviour
What are the types of determinsim?
Hard and soft
What is hard-determinism?
suggests all human action has a cause and it should be possible to identify these causes
What is soft-determinsim?
suggests all human action has a cause but people have the freedom to make choices from a restricted range of options
What are the 3 types of determinsim?
Biological
Environmental
Psychic
What is biological determinsim?
behaviour is determined by biological influences such as genetic, hormonal and evolutionary factors we cannot control
What is environmental determinsim?
free will is an illusion
behaviour is as a result of conditioning
behaviour is caused by forces we cannot control
What is psychic determinsm?
idea that behaviour is caused by unconscious psychodynamic conflicts that we cannot control
behaviours as a result of childhood experiences and innate drives that could influence our behaviour
What are key concepts of the nature side of the debate?
nativists argue that human characterisitcs are innate - result of genes
psychological characterisitcs determined by biological factors like eye colour and height
What are the key concepts of the nurture side of the debate?
empiricists argue that the mind is a blank slate at birth and is shaped by interaction with the environment
What are epigenetics?
a change in genetic activity without changing the genetic code
lifestyle and events we encounter from activities like smoking, trauma and war leave marks on our DNA genes switching genes on/off
can be passed down to future generations
Wha is interactionism?
important perspective in nature-nurture debate
our natures may predipose us to certain things but they aren’t unlocked without the environment
What is an example of interactionsim?
behaviour is caused by biological/ environemental vulnerability which is only expressed when coupled with a biological / environemtal trigger
Diathesis stress model
How is poor research design having a long-term impact a limitation of ethical implications of research studies and theory?
P - Poor research design has long-term impacts.
Ev - Burt’s (1955) claim that IQ is genetic and fixed at 11 led to the 11+ exam, limiting education for many. His evidence was later discredited, but the system remained.
Ex - SSR must be planned with care to ensure findings are valid.
L - Valid SSR prevents enduring harm to specific groups.
What are the evaluation points for nature-nurture debate?
+) adoption studies
C.P-> children pick environments appropriate to their nature
+) support for epigenetics
+) RWA
How is research studies from adoption studies a strength of the nature-nurture debate?
P - A strength of the nature-nurture debate is adoption studies.
Ev - Adopted children are more similar to their adoptive parents (environmental influence) or biological parents (genetic influence).
Ex - Rhee and Waldman (2002) found genetic influences accounted for 41% of variance in aggression.
L - This shows how research can separate nature and nurture influences.
How is real world application a strength of the nature-nurture debate?
P - A strength is the real-world application of the debate.
Ev - Nestadt et al. (2010) found a heritability rate of 0.76 for OCD, suggesting it is highly heritable.
Ex - This understanding can inform genetic counseling for those at high genetic risk of OCD.
L - This shows that the nature-nurture debate is not just theoretical but has practical significance.
How is children choosing their own environment based on their nature a counter for adoption studies research?
P - Children create their own nurture through niche-picking.
Ev - A naturally aggressive child may choose aggressive friends, reinforcing aggressive behavior (Plomin).
Ex - This suggests it’s unhelpful to separate nature and nurture in isolation.
L - Nature and nurture interact, making it difficult to examine them separately.
How is support for epigenetics a strength of the nature-nurture debate?
P - Support for epigenetics shows environmental factors affect future generations.
Ev - During the 1944 Dutch famine, women who were pregnant had babies with low birth weight, and these children were more likely to develop schizophrenia (Susser & Lin, 1992).
Ex - This shows that environmental stressors can leave lasting genetic markers.
L - These markers can influence offspring health, supporting the role of epigenetics.
How is the nature-nurture debate having real world application a strength?
P - A strength is the real-world application of the debate.
Ev - Nestadt et al. (2010) found a heritability rate of 0.76 for OCD, suggesting it is highly heritable.
Ex - This understanding can inform genetic counseling for those at high genetic risk of OCD.
L - This shows that the nature-nurture debate is not just theoretical but has practical significance.
How is lacking practical value a limitation of holism?
P - A limitation of holism is its lack of practical value.
Ev - Holistic accounts of behavior become complex, making it hard to prioritize factors for treatment, e.g., in depression.
Ex - If many factors contribute to depression, it’s difficult to identify the most influential one.
L - This suggests holistic approaches may lack practical value, while reductionist approaches could be more useful.
How is scientific status a strength of reductionism?
P - A strength of reductionism is its scientific status.
Ev - Reductionism breaks down target behaviors into smaller, measurable parts, making research more controlled and objective.
Ex - This allows for experiments and observations to be conducted reliably, using behavioral categories.
L - This scientific approach enhances psychology’s credibility, placing it on par with natural sciences.
How is reductionist explanations a counter for scientific status as a strength of reductionism?
P - A limitation of reductionism is its lack of context.
Ev - Reductionist explanations, focusing on genes or neurotransmitters, don’t consider the context in which behavior occurs.
Ex - This means these explanations may lack meaning or a full understanding of the behavior.
L - Therefore, reductionist explanations can only form part of a complete explanation.
What are the evaluation points for holism and reductionism?
+) may lack practical value
-) the need for higher level explanations
+) scientific status
C.P -> only part of explanation
How is the need for higher level explanations a limitation of reductionism?
P - A limitation is the need for higher-level explanations.
Ev - Some social behaviors only emerge in a group context, such as in the Stanford prison experiment.
Ex - The behaviour of the group, not individual participants, was key to understanding the results.
L - This shows that higher or holistic-level explanations can provide a more valid account of certain behaviours.
What is the holism - redutionism debate?
Debate which position is preferrable for psychology
studying the entire person or studying components of a person
What are levels of explanation?
several ways to explain behaviour
What is holism?
proposes that it only makes sense to study a whole system as the whole is greater than the sum of it’s parts
What is reductionism?
based on scientific principle parsimony it suggests all phenomena should be explained using simplest principles
What are some levels of explanation?
Socio-cultural level
Psychological level
Physical level
Environemental level
Psychological level
Neirochemical level
What is biological reductionism?
suggests all behaviour can nbe explained through neurochemical, psychiological, evolutionary genetic influences
What is environemental determinism?
proposes that all behaviour is acquired through interactions with the environment
How is idographic and nonomthetic approaches working together a strength?
P - One strength is that they complement each other.
Ev - For example, case studies like HM provide detailed insights into brain functioning and memory.
Ex - This means unique data enhances general understanding.
L - This shows focusing on individuals can help form scientfic laws of behaviour.
What are the evaluation points for idiographic and nomothetic approaches?
+) idiographic and nomothetic approaches work together
C.P -> idiographic approach alone is restricted
-) individual experience is lost in the nomothetic approach
+) both approaches fit with science
How is the idiographic approach alone being restricted a counter for idiographic and nomothetic approaches working together?
P - The idiographic approach on its own is restricted.
Ev - It lacks a baseline for comparison and can be unscientific and subjective.
Ex - This means it’s difficult to build general theories without nomothetic research.
L - This shows that idiographic research alone is insufficient for understanding behaviour.
How is both idiographic and nomothetic approaches fitting with the aims of science a strength?
P - The approaches align with the aims of science.
Ev - Nomothetic research uses standardization, control, and statistical testing. Idiographic research uses triangulation and reflexivity to ensure objectivity.
Ex - This means both approaches contribute to scientific rigor in psychology.
L - This shows they raise psychology’s status as a science.
How is losing the individual experience a limitation of the Nomothetic approach?
P - One limitation is that individual experience is lost.
Ev - The nomothetic approach focuses on general laws and may overlook personal experiences. For example, knowing the 1% lifetime risk of schizophrenia doesn’t reveal the lived experience of the disorder, which is crucial for therapy.
Ex - This means it can fail to provide meaningful insights for therapeutic practice.
L - Therefore, it may struggle to relate to individual experiences.
What is the idiographic and nomothetic approaches debate?
Debate over which is preferreable
idiographic - detailed study of 1 individual / 1 group to provide in depth understanding
OR
nomothetic - study of larger groups with the aim of discovering norms, universal principles or laws of behaviour
What are key concepts of the Idiographic approach?
small number of ppts
initially focus on understanding individual but generalisations may be made based on findings
qualitative research : interviews, emergent themes interviewed , conclusions formed
What are the concepts of the nomothetic approach?
general principles of behaviour (laws) are developed and then applied to individual situations like therpaies
Quantitative research: hypotheses formualted, samples of people gathered, data analysed for statistical significance
What are example of idiographic approach in spcyhology?
Freud’s explanation of phobia was based on the detailed study of Little Hans over many years
What are examples of the Nomothetic approach?
Skinner studied animals to develop the general laws of learning
How is policy makers relying on SSR a limitation of ethical implications of research studies and theory?
P - Policymakers rely on socially sensitive research (SSR).
Ev - Governments use research to inform social policies on childcare, education, mental health, and crime. This is better than relying on politically motivated views.
Ex - The Office for National Statistics (ONS) collects and shares objective data about the UK’s economy, society, and population.
L - Psychologists play a vital role in producing high-quality research on socially sensitive topics.
How is benefits for the groups studied a strength of ethical implications of research studies and theory?
P - A strength of SSR is the benefits for the group studied.
Ev - The DSM-I listed homosexuality as a disorder, but it was removed in 1973 after the Kinsey Report (1948) showed it’s a normal variant of human sexual behavior.
Ex - The report used anonymous interviews with 5,000 men.
L - This highlights the importance of researching sensitive topics for change.
How are negative consequences a counter of ethical implications of research and studies?
P - There may be negative consequences that could have been anticipated.
Ev - Research on the criminal gene suggests people may not be responsible for their wrongdoings.
Ex - This implies that socially sensitive topics require careful consideration of potential outcomes.
L - Researchers must consider the consequences of their findings when studying sensitive issues.
What are the evaluation points of ethical implications of research and studies?
+) SSR benefits the group studies
C.P -> negative consequences that couldve been anticipated
+) policymakers rely on SSR
-) poor research design may have a long-term impact
How do ethical issues arise?
due to conflict
between the need for valid research findings and preserving the rights of ppts
What are guidelines?
Ethical guidelines protect ppts and guide researchers
What must psychologists be aware of when it comes to Socially sensitive research?
Psychologists must be aware of the consequences of socially sensitive research. For example, studying depression can impact participants’ well-being, while research on long-term memory, although it is less socially sensitive in students could influence exam policies. Researchers must carefully consider the effects their findings may have on both individuals and society.
What should be considered by psychologists at all stages of the research process?
Consequences
Why is the phrasing of a research question important in considering the ethical implications of a study?
it shapes how findings are interpreted.
For instance, focusing on alternative relationships may emphasize homosexual ones while neglecting heterosexual relationships, leading to biased or incomplete conclusions. (Kitzinger and Coyle 1995)
How do researchers deal with partcipants?
informed consent, confidentiality and psychological harm
e.g - inerviewing victims of domestic abuse - ppts may worry about ex-partners finding out what they said and ppts may find experience of talking about abusive experiences stressfuil
What do researchers need to consider when using their findings>
Researchers need to consider how their findings might be used, as they could inadvertently give scientific credence to prejudices. For example, flawed IQ tests during WW1 contributed to prejudice against Eastern Europeans and people unfamiliar with U.S. presidents.
