Issues and Debates

Question 1

What are the evaluation points for Gender bias?

Answer 1

-) gender differences are fixed and enduring

C.P -> research support for popular stereotype - multitasking

-) promotes sexism in research process

-) research challenging bias may not be published

Question 2

How is gender differences being given as fixed and enduring a limitation?

Answer 2

P - gender differences are given as fixed and enduring

Ev - Maccoby and Jacklin (1974). concluded girls have better verbal ability and boys have better spatial ability - due to biological brain differences

Ex - suggests we should be wary of accepting research as biological facts when it might be better explained as a social steretoype

Question 3

How is research support on multi-tasking a counterpoint of gender differences being seen as fixed and enduring?

Answer 3

P - research may supports popular stereotype that females are better at multi-tasking

Ev - Ingalhalikar said women’s hemispheres are better connected than males so there may be some biological truth

Ex - may be biological differences - still should be wary of exaggerating the effect they may have on behaviour

Question 4

How is pomoting sexism a limitation of gender bias?

Answer 4

P - promotes sexism in research process

Ev - Murphy et al (2014) women underrepresented in university departments so research more likely to be conducted by males disadvantaging females

Ex - male researcher may expect female participant to be irrational, unable to complete tasks -> underperform

L - institutional structures / methods of psychology produce gender-biased findings

Question 5

How is research challenging bias not being published a limitation of gender bias?

Answer 5

P - research challenging gender bias doesnt get published

Ev - Formaowicz et al (2008) analysed 1000 articles relating to gender bias, this research is funded less, published by less prestigous journals

Ex - still held true when gender compared to other biases

L - suggests gender bias in psychological research not taken as seriously as other forms of bias

Question 6

What is universality?

Answer 6

• facts about human behaviour
• that are objective, value-free and consistent
• across time and culture

Question 7

What is alpha bias?

Answer 7

Exaggerates differences between sexes

Question 8

What does alpha bias do to women?

Answer 8

• Sometimes heightens value of women
• more likely to devalue females rather than males

Question 9

What is gender bias?

Answer 9

• Psychological theory/ research
• may not accurately represent the experience and behaviour of men and women.

Question 10

What is an example of alpha bias favouring males?

Answer 10

Freud (1905)

• claimed children in phallic stage desire opposite sex parent
• resolved by identification with same-sex parent
• girl’s identification is weaker -> weaker superego
• so weaker moral development

Question 11

What is an example of alpha bias favouring females?

Answer 11

• Chodorow (1968)
• said daughters and mothers more connected than mother and son
• because of biological similarities
• so women develop better bonds and empathy for others

Question 12

What is beta bias?

Answer 12

Theories that ignore or minimise differences between the sexes

Question 13

What is an example of beta bias?

Answer 13

fight / flight research based on men

• assumed to be universal response to threat
• Taylor et al 2000 said females have a tend and befriend response
• controlled by oxytocin - more in females than males
• reduces fight/flight response
• evolved response for caring for young

Question 14

What is androcentrism?

Answer 14

Male centred; when normal behaviour is judged according to a male standard

Question 15

??????

Answer 15

psychology is male dominated

6/100 famous psychologists = female

Question 16

What is an example of adrocentrism?

Answer 16

PMS medicalises female emotions by explaining them in hormonal terms - feminists object

• but male anger is a rational response to external pressures

Question 17

What are evaluations points for cultural bias?

Answer 17

-) many infleucntial studies are culturally biased
C.P - research support not case anymore
+) emergence of cultural psychology
-) ethnic stereotyping

Question 18

How is many influential studies being culturally biased a limitation of cultural bias

Answer 18

P - many influential studies are culturally-biased
Ev - Asch + Milgram used US white participants and replications of studies in other countries produced diffferent results. Asch - collectivist cultures found higher conformity.
Ex - our understanding of topics like social influence should only be applied to individualistic cultures
L - influential studies not useful IAPAIAPATT

Question 19

How is research support a counterpoint for u=influential studies being culturally biased

Answer 19

P - Research support
Ev - Takano and Oksana (1999) found 14/15 studies compared China + US found no evidence of individualism/ collectivism
Ex - means distinction is simplistic
L - cultural bias is not that big of an issue in recent research

Question 20

How is the emergence of cultural psychology a strength of cultural bias?

Answer 20

P - emergence of cultural psychology
Ev - Study of how people shape and are shaped by their cultural experience.
Ex - research conducted inside a culture, with local researchers using culturally based techniques, fewer cultures used when comparing differences
L - modern psychologists are mindful of dangers of cultural bias, taking steps to avoid it

Question 21

How is ethnic stereotyping a limitation of cultural bias?

Answer 21

P - ethnic stereotyping
Ev - Gould (1981) explained how 1st IQ test led to eugenic social policies in America. WW1 psychologists given IQ test, ethnocentric test items US presidents e.g. South Eastern Europe and African Americans scored lowest, deemed genetically inferior
Ex - illustrates how cultural bias can be used to justify prejudice, discrimination towards ethnic and cultural groups

Question 22

What name coined by Heinrich et al describes the group that are most likely to be studied in psychology?

Answer 22

Westernised
Educated people from
Industrialised
Rich
Democracies

Question 23

What is an etic approach?

Answer 23

approach looks at behaviour from outside a given culture and identifies behaviours that are universal

Question 24

Which researcher used an etic approach?

Answer 24

Ainsworth
studied behaviour in a single culture (America) abd then assumed that their ideal attachment type could be applied universally

Question 25

What is an emic approach?

Answer 25

approach functions from inside a culture and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture

Question 26

What is ethnocentrism?

Answer 26

The belief that our own group or culture is superior to all other groups or cultures

Question 27

What is an example of ethnocentrism?

Answer 27

Ainsworth’s suggested secure attachment was a baby showing moderate distress when separated by mother
- in Japan, babies are rarely left alone so would be insecurely attached for showing distress on separation

Question 28

What is cultural relativism?

Answer 28

judging a culture using its own standards instead of your own

Question 29

How is free will having practical value a strength of free will?

Answer 29

P - A strength of free will is its practical value.
Ev - Roberts et al. (2000) found that adolescents who believed in fatalism, that their lives were controlled by external events, were more likely to develop depression.
Ex - Those with an internal locus of control are more optimistic.
L - This suggests that believing in free will can positively impact mental health and behavior.

Question 30

How is determinism having a role of responsibility in law a limitation of determinism?

Answer 30

P - Determinism has a role in responsibility in law.
Ev - The hard determinist stance is inconsistent with the legal system, where offenders are held responsible for their actions.
Ex - The legal system assumes defendants exercised free will in committing crimes.
L - This suggests determinist arguments don’t apply in real-world legal contexts.

Question 31

How is evidence supporting determinism and not free will a limitation of free will?

Answer 31

P - Evidence supports determinism, not free will.
Ev - Libet et al. (1983) found brain activity occurred half a second before participants consciously decided to move.
Ex - Participants were unaware of brain activity that preceded their decision.
L - This suggests our sense of free will may be determined by unconscious brain processes.

Question 32

How is having conscious control a counter of the idea that we have evidence that doesnt support free will but supports determinism?

Answer 32

P - Conscious awareness of decisions supports free will.
Ev - People become aware of decisions milliseconds after they start acting, suggesting they may have made the decision to act.
Ex - Our conscious awareness is a read-out of unconscious decision-making processes.
L - This suggests that evidence against free will may not be appropriate as a challenge to it.

Question 33

What is the debate of free will vs determinism?

Answer 33

Argues is behaviour a matter of free will or are we the product of internal and/or external influences?

Question 34

What is free will?

Answer 34

suggests humans are free to make their own choices
view of HA approach
implies we can reject biological and environmental influences on our behaviour

Question 35

What are the types of determinsim?

Answer 35

Hard and soft

Question 36

What is hard-determinism?

Answer 36

suggests all human action has a cause and it should be possible to identify these causes

Question 37

What is soft-determinsim?

Answer 37

suggests all human action has a cause but people have the freedom to make choices from a restricted range of options

Question 38

What are the 3 types of determinsim?

Answer 38

Biological
Environmental
Psychic

Question 39

What is biological determinsim?

Answer 39

behaviour is determined by biological influences such as genetic, hormonal and evolutionary factors we cannot control

Question 40

What is environmental determinsim?

Answer 40

free will is an illusion
behaviour is as a result of conditioning
behaviour is caused by forces we cannot control

Question 41

What is psychic determinsm?

Answer 41

idea that behaviour is caused by unconscious psychodynamic conflicts that we cannot control
behaviours as a result of childhood experiences and innate drives that could influence our behaviour

Question 42

What are key concepts of the nature side of the debate?

Answer 42

nativists argue that human characterisitcs are innate - result of genes
psychological characterisitcs determined by biological factors like eye colour and height

Question 43

What are the key concepts of the nurture side of the debate?

Answer 43

empiricists argue that the mind is a blank slate at birth and is shaped by interaction with the environment

Question 44

What are epigenetics?

Answer 44

a change in genetic activity without changing the genetic code
lifestyle and events we encounter from activities like smoking, trauma and war leave marks on our DNA genes switching genes on/off
can be passed down to future generations

Question 45

Wha is interactionism?

Answer 45

important perspective in nature-nurture debate
our natures may predipose us to certain things but they aren’t unlocked without the environment

Question 46

What is an example of interactionsim?

Answer 46

behaviour is caused by biological/ environemental vulnerability which is only expressed when coupled with a biological / environemtal trigger
Diathesis stress model

Question 47

How is poor research design having a long-term impact a limitation of ethical implications of research studies and theory?

Answer 47

P - Poor research design has long-term impacts.
Ev - Burt’s (1955) claim that IQ is genetic and fixed at 11 led to the 11+ exam, limiting education for many. His evidence was later discredited, but the system remained.
Ex - SSR must be planned with care to ensure findings are valid.
L - Valid SSR prevents enduring harm to specific groups.

Question 48

What are the evaluation points for nature-nurture debate?

Answer 48

+) adoption studies
C.P-> children pick environments appropriate to their nature
+) support for epigenetics
+) RWA

Question 49

How is research studies from adoption studies a strength of the nature-nurture debate?

Answer 49

P - A strength of the nature-nurture debate is adoption studies.
Ev - Adopted children are more similar to their adoptive parents (environmental influence) or biological parents (genetic influence).
Ex - Rhee and Waldman (2002) found genetic influences accounted for 41% of variance in aggression.
L - This shows how research can separate nature and nurture influences.

Question 50

How is real world application a strength of the nature-nurture debate?

Answer 50

P - A strength is the real-world application of the debate.
Ev - Nestadt et al. (2010) found a heritability rate of 0.76 for OCD, suggesting it is highly heritable.
Ex - This understanding can inform genetic counseling for those at high genetic risk of OCD.
L - This shows that the nature-nurture debate is not just theoretical but has practical significance.

Question 51

How is children choosing their own environment based on their nature a counter for adoption studies research?

Answer 51

P - Children create their own nurture through niche-picking.
Ev - A naturally aggressive child may choose aggressive friends, reinforcing aggressive behavior (Plomin).
Ex - This suggests it’s unhelpful to separate nature and nurture in isolation.
L - Nature and nurture interact, making it difficult to examine them separately.

Question 52

How is support for epigenetics a strength of the nature-nurture debate?

Answer 52

P - Support for epigenetics shows environmental factors affect future generations.
Ev - During the 1944 Dutch famine, women who were pregnant had babies with low birth weight, and these children were more likely to develop schizophrenia (Susser & Lin, 1992).
Ex - This shows that environmental stressors can leave lasting genetic markers.
L - These markers can influence offspring health, supporting the role of epigenetics.

Question 53

How is the nature-nurture debate having real world application a strength?

Answer 53

P - A strength is the real-world application of the debate.
Ev - Nestadt et al. (2010) found a heritability rate of 0.76 for OCD, suggesting it is highly heritable.
Ex - This understanding can inform genetic counseling for those at high genetic risk of OCD.
L - This shows that the nature-nurture debate is not just theoretical but has practical significance.

Question 54

How is lacking practical value a limitation of holism?

Answer 54

P - A limitation of holism is its lack of practical value.
Ev - Holistic accounts of behavior become complex, making it hard to prioritize factors for treatment, e.g., in depression.
Ex - If many factors contribute to depression, it’s difficult to identify the most influential one.
L - This suggests holistic approaches may lack practical value, while reductionist approaches could be more useful.

Question 55

How is scientific status a strength of reductionism?

Answer 55

P - A strength of reductionism is its scientific status.
Ev - Reductionism breaks down target behaviors into smaller, measurable parts, making research more controlled and objective.
Ex - This allows for experiments and observations to be conducted reliably, using behavioral categories.
L - This scientific approach enhances psychology’s credibility, placing it on par with natural sciences.

Question 56

How is reductionist explanations a counter for scientific status as a strength of reductionism?

Answer 56

P - A limitation of reductionism is its lack of context.
Ev - Reductionist explanations, focusing on genes or neurotransmitters, don’t consider the context in which behavior occurs.
Ex - This means these explanations may lack meaning or a full understanding of the behavior.
L - Therefore, reductionist explanations can only form part of a complete explanation.

Question 57

What are the evaluation points for holism and reductionism?

Answer 57

+) may lack practical value
-) the need for higher level explanations
+) scientific status
C.P -> only part of explanation

Question 58

How is the need for higher level explanations a limitation of reductionism?

Answer 58

P - A limitation is the need for higher-level explanations.
Ev - Some social behaviors only emerge in a group context, such as in the Stanford prison experiment.
Ex - The behaviour of the group, not individual participants, was key to understanding the results.
L - This shows that higher or holistic-level explanations can provide a more valid account of certain behaviours.

Question 59

What is the holism - redutionism debate?

Answer 59

Debate which position is preferrable for psychology
studying the entire person or studying components of a person

Question 60

What are levels of explanation?

Answer 60

several ways to explain behaviour

Question 61

What is holism?

Answer 61

proposes that it only makes sense to study a whole system as the whole is greater than the sum of it’s parts

Question 62

What is reductionism?

Answer 62

based on scientific principle parsimony it suggests all phenomena should be explained using simplest principles

Question 63

What are some levels of explanation?

Answer 63

Socio-cultural level
Psychological level
Physical level
Environemental level
Psychological level
Neirochemical level

Question 64

What is biological reductionism?

Answer 64

suggests all behaviour can nbe explained through neurochemical, psychiological, evolutionary genetic influences

Question 65

What is environemental determinism?

Answer 65

proposes that all behaviour is acquired through interactions with the environment

Question 66

How is idographic and nonomthetic approaches working together a strength?

Answer 66

P - One strength is that they complement each other.
Ev - For example, case studies like HM provide detailed insights into brain functioning and memory.
Ex - This means unique data enhances general understanding.
L - This shows focusing on individuals can help form scientfic laws of behaviour.

Question 67

What are the evaluation points for idiographic and nomothetic approaches?

Answer 67

+) idiographic and nomothetic approaches work together
C.P -> idiographic approach alone is restricted
-) individual experience is lost in the nomothetic approach
+) both approaches fit with science

Question 68

How is the idiographic approach alone being restricted a counter for idiographic and nomothetic approaches working together?

Answer 68

P - The idiographic approach on its own is restricted.
Ev - It lacks a baseline for comparison and can be unscientific and subjective.
Ex - This means it’s difficult to build general theories without nomothetic research.
L - This shows that idiographic research alone is insufficient for understanding behaviour.

Question 69

How is both idiographic and nomothetic approaches fitting with the aims of science a strength?

Answer 69

P - The approaches align with the aims of science.
Ev - Nomothetic research uses standardization, control, and statistical testing. Idiographic research uses triangulation and reflexivity to ensure objectivity.
Ex - This means both approaches contribute to scientific rigor in psychology.
L - This shows they raise psychology’s status as a science.

Question 70

How is losing the individual experience a limitation of the Nomothetic approach?

Answer 70

P - One limitation is that individual experience is lost.
Ev - The nomothetic approach focuses on general laws and may overlook personal experiences. For example, knowing the 1% lifetime risk of schizophrenia doesn’t reveal the lived experience of the disorder, which is crucial for therapy.
Ex - This means it can fail to provide meaningful insights for therapeutic practice.
L - Therefore, it may struggle to relate to individual experiences.

Question 71

What is the idiographic and nomothetic approaches debate?

Answer 71

Debate over which is preferreable
idiographic - detailed study of 1 individual / 1 group to provide in depth understanding
OR
nomothetic - study of larger groups with the aim of discovering norms, universal principles or laws of behaviour

Question 72

What are key concepts of the Idiographic approach?

Answer 72

small number of ppts
initially focus on understanding individual but generalisations may be made based on findings
qualitative research : interviews, emergent themes interviewed , conclusions formed

Question 73

What are the concepts of the nomothetic approach?

Answer 73

general principles of behaviour (laws) are developed and then applied to individual situations like therpaies
Quantitative research: hypotheses formualted, samples of people gathered, data analysed for statistical significance

Question 74

What are example of idiographic approach in spcyhology?

Answer 74

Freud’s explanation of phobia was based on the detailed study of Little Hans over many years

Question 75

What are examples of the Nomothetic approach?

Answer 75

Skinner studied animals to develop the general laws of learning

Question 76

How is policy makers relying on SSR a limitation of ethical implications of research studies and theory?

Answer 76

P - Policymakers rely on socially sensitive research (SSR).
Ev - Governments use research to inform social policies on childcare, education, mental health, and crime. This is better than relying on politically motivated views.
Ex - The Office for National Statistics (ONS) collects and shares objective data about the UK’s economy, society, and population.
L - Psychologists play a vital role in producing high-quality research on socially sensitive topics.

Question 77

How is benefits for the groups studied a strength of ethical implications of research studies and theory?

Answer 77

P - A strength of SSR is the benefits for the group studied.
Ev - The DSM-I listed homosexuality as a disorder, but it was removed in 1973 after the Kinsey Report (1948) showed it’s a normal variant of human sexual behavior.
Ex - The report used anonymous interviews with 5,000 men.
L - This highlights the importance of researching sensitive topics for change.

Question 78

How are negative consequences a counter of ethical implications of research and studies?

Answer 78

P - There may be negative consequences that could have been anticipated.
Ev - Research on the criminal gene suggests people may not be responsible for their wrongdoings.
Ex - This implies that socially sensitive topics require careful consideration of potential outcomes.
L - Researchers must consider the consequences of their findings when studying sensitive issues.

Question 79

What are the evaluation points of ethical implications of research and studies?

Answer 79

+) SSR benefits the group studies
C.P -> negative consequences that couldve been anticipated
+) policymakers rely on SSR
-) poor research design may have a long-term impact

Question 80

How do ethical issues arise?

Answer 80

due to conflict
between the need for valid research findings and preserving the rights of ppts

Question 81

What are guidelines?

Answer 81

Ethical guidelines protect ppts and guide researchers

Question 82

What must psychologists be aware of when it comes to Socially sensitive research?

Answer 82

Psychologists must be aware of the consequences of socially sensitive research. For example, studying depression can impact participants’ well-being, while research on long-term memory, although it is less socially sensitive in students could influence exam policies. Researchers must carefully consider the effects their findings may have on both individuals and society.

Question 83

What should be considered by psychologists at all stages of the research process?

Answer 83

Consequences

Question 84

Why is the phrasing of a research question important in considering the ethical implications of a study?

Answer 84

it shapes how findings are interpreted.
For instance, focusing on alternative relationships may emphasize homosexual ones while neglecting heterosexual relationships, leading to biased or incomplete conclusions. (Kitzinger and Coyle 1995)

Question 85

How do researchers deal with partcipants?

Answer 85

informed consent, confidentiality and psychological harm
e.g - inerviewing victims of domestic abuse - ppts may worry about ex-partners finding out what they said and ppts may find experience of talking about abusive experiences stressfuil

Question 86

What do researchers need to consider when using their findings>

Answer 86

Researchers need to consider how their findings might be used, as they could inadvertently give scientific credence to prejudices. For example, flawed IQ tests during WW1 contributed to prejudice against Eastern Europeans and people unfamiliar with U.S. presidents.