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medsci reproductive Flashcards

1
Q

hypothalamus main functions

A

homeostatic regulator for reproduction, stress, body temp, hunger, thirst and sleep.

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2
Q

why is the hypothalamus a neuroendocrine organ

A

because it processes both neural and hormone information

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3
Q

pituitary main function definition

A

hormones are released from the posterior pituitary, neurosecretory cells possess long axon tracts that pass into the posterior pituitary. The neurosecretory peptide hormones are synthesised in the hypothalmus.

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4
Q

what are the two neurosecretory peptide hormones

A

oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH/vasopressin).

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5
Q

gonadotrophs

A

specalised secretory cells that stimulate release of LH and FSH (luteinising and follicle stimulating hormone).

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5
Q

Anterior pituitary role in neurosecretory systems.

A

neurosecretory neurones synthesise releasing and inhibiting hormones in their cell body into vesicles. VIA HYPOPHYSEAL portal vessels.

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6
Q

where is oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone synthesised in

A

the hypothalamus and transported to the posterior pituitary where they are stored and released.

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7
Q

oxytocin

A

Used to induce labour. Has major effects on smooth muscle contraction, causing milk ejection and contraction of the uterus during childbirth. Secretion is stimulated in response to nipples or uterine distension.

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8
Q

Gonadotrophs in the hypothalamus

A

produce gonadotrophins: follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH)

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9
Q

Where are neurosecretory peptide hormones secreted into?

A

the hypophyseal portal vessels between hypothalamus and anterior pituitary.

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10
Q

Water soluble peptides and proteins

A

gonadotrophin releasing hormone from the hypothalamus, follicle stimulating hormone (AP), luteinising hormone (AP), oxytocin (PP).

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11
Q

Lipid soluble steroid hormones

A

androgens (testes), oestrogens (ovary) and progestagens (ovary).

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12
Q

What hormones are associated with the ovaries?

A

progestagens and oestrogen

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13
Q

is gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) water or lipid soluble

A

water soluble

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13
Q

what hormones associated with the testes?

A

androgens

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14
Q

is oxytocin water or lipid soluble

A

water

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15
Q

is luteinising hormone water or lipid soluble

A

water

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16
Q

is follicle stimulating hormone water or lipid soluble

A

water

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17
Q

are angrogens, oestrogens and and progesterones lipid or water soluble

A

lipid

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18
Q

adrenal glands in homeostasis and reproduction produce

A

estrogens and androgens

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19
Q

regulation of gonadotrophin secretion process

A

hypothalamus release only positive releasing gonadotrophin release hormone GnRH -> anterior pituitary gonadotrophs secreted -> release FSH and LH to gonads.

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19
Q

the regulatory process of pituitary secretory cells

A

The hypothalamus produce either releasing or release-inhibiting hormones to reach the anterior pituitary. Anterior pituitary secretory cells produce pituitary hormones which act on target tissues.

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20
Q

how does the regulatory process of pituitary secretory cells and regulation of gonadotrophin secretion in the reproductive system maintain homeostasis

A

This is a positive/neg feed back loop back on the on pituitary and hypothalamus to ensure homeostasis.

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21
Q

Negative regulation of gonadotrophin secretion

A

when the gonads produce androgens, oestrogens and progestagens the negative feedback respondds to these sex hormones and inhibit the release of hormones from hypothalamus and anterior pituitary.

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22
Q

androgens

A

produced from the adrenal cortex via adipose tissue which deal with heart growth, libido, bone health and muscle mass. Key properties include male sex development, spermatogenesis, sexual behaviour.

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23
Q

oestrogens

A

oestradiol, oestrone, oestriol and for purberty (layer- implantation of an embryo and growth of endmetrium). Regulations of menstrual cycle and bone growth.

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24
Q

two types of androgens

A

testosterone and 5a Dihydrotestosterone

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24
Q

5a dihydrotestosterone (DHT)

A

more active form of androgen involved in specific events, present during puberty and maintains male structures throughout lifetime, more potent than test. Important in early male development, spermatogenesis

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24
Q

androgens in females and males

A

mainly for men, females also have but 10-20x less than the average male.

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25
Q

testosterone

A

main secreting product of testes for development and maintenance of a male. More systemic and regulatory roles.

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26
Q

oestrogen’s in male vs female

A

females use estrogen more but males also use estrogen for bone growth, spermatogenesis and libido, however 20-10x less than females.

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27
Q

SRY gene

A

sex determining region on Y chromosome

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28
Q

progestagens

A

The major steroidal hormone of the corpus luteum of the placenta. Exclusive to female sex. Associated with preprations of pregnancy and maintenance. Only produced after ovulation and there for limited time.

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29
Q

how many chromosomes and how many pairs are sex chromosomes?

A

46 chromosones, 22 autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes.

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29
Q

Sex determination and differentiation

A

Commitment of the bipotential gonad to the testis or an ovary, SRY gene (sex determining region on the Y chromosome provide pathway for testes to develop. Absence of Y = feminine trend.

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30
Q

phenotypic development of genital structures due to the action of hormones produced following gonadal development

A

This process is crucial for the differentiation and maturation of male and female genitalia. SRY, FSH and LH. Androgens and oestrogens.

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31
Q

Bipotential gonad

A

gonad with two potential outcomes of either female or male as it has both sex organs

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32
Q

Y chromosome present in sex determination

A

gonads develop into testes as testicular hormones are produced -> male sex

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33
Q

Female duct

A

mullerian duct

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33
Q

y chromosome absent

A

female gonads develop into female phenotype. (XX)

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34
Q

Male duct

A

wolffian duct

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35
Q

what produces a bipotential gonad

A

the mesoderm

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36
Q

bipotential gonad to male genitalia process

A

SRY gene on Y chromosome form testis via sertoli cells and leydig cells. Seritoli -> anti-mullerian hormone -> regression of mullerian duct.
Leydig -> test -> wolffian development -> BALLS.

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37
Q

bipotential gonad to female ovary process

A

without presence of Y chromosome, the ovary forms and produces oestrogens and progestagens which progress mullerian duct development and regress wolffian duct then produce femal internal genitals.

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38
Q

anti-mullerian hormone (AMH)

A

controls the mullerian duct regression in male differentiation.

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38
Q

bipotental gonad to male or female sex - which one is a faster process?

A

male genitalia progression as two hormones drive this process, the female estrogen and progestagens dont drive the development of mullerian duct. The progression naturally occurs.

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38
Q

when do the wolffian ducts regress in female differentiation

A

10 weeks

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39
Q

what do the wolffian ducts develop into

A

the seminal vesicles, epididymis and vas deferens.

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40
Q

what do the mullerian ducts progress into

A

the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix and upper vagina.

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40
Q

when does the testis descend from its internal position in male differentiation

A

~7th month the testis descend from its internal position in the scrotum.

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41
Q

what causes the mullerian duct to regress in male differentiation

A

AMH ANTIMULLERIAN HORMONE

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42
Q

External genitalia progression -

A

the male and female external genitalia develop from a single bipotential precursor.

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42
Q

how is the glans penis formed

A

the genital tubercule expands forming the glans penis

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43
Q

external genitalia male differentiation

A

fusion of urthral folds enclosing utrethral tube to form the shaft of the penis. Labioscrotal swellings fuse in the midline forming the scrotum. The genital tubercle (glans area) explans to form the glans penis

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44
Q

external genitalia female differentiation

A

urethral folds and labioscrotal swellings remain seperate forming the labia minora, the glans area (genital tubercle) forms the clitoris

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45
Q

difference between male and female external genitalia formation

A

the male urethral folds and labioscrotal swellings fuse whereas the urethral folds of the female remain seperate

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46
Q

what causes androgen insensitivity syndrome

A

mutation in androgen receptor gene which prevents androgen function. As there is no androgen function the exterior genitalia will appear female.

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46
Q

what forms the labia minora

A

urethral folds and the labioscrotum swelling that remains seperate

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47
Q

androgen insensitivity syndrome

A

person is XY, has testes but the genital ducts or external genitals are female. This is the result of a mutation in the androgen receptor gene which prevents androgen function. In the absence of androgen action the external genitalia will appear female.

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47
Q

glans area, genital tubercle differences in male and female sex differentiation

A

in the female it becomes the clitoris, in males it expands to form the glans penis

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48
Q

When is menarche (first menstrual period)

A

around 12-13 years and ovulation doesnt take place until 6-9 months after as positive feedback mechanisms of oestrogens are not fully developed yet. Therefore regular cycles persist after 1-2 years (menarche.)

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49
Q

Puberty

A

the gradual physical, emotional and sexual transition from childhood to adulthood. Considered the reawakening of the reproductive endocrine systems, which leads to full secondary sexual maturation with capacity for reproduction.

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50
Q

plasma levels of gonadotrophins in childhood

A

are very low until the initiation events leading to puberty

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51
Q

how is the onset of puberty recognised

A

by the production of the luteinising hormone, an increase in plasma LH is the first endocrine sign of puberty therefore the result of an increase in GnRH release. Gonadotrophin secretion (LH and FSH) occurs in early puberty at night during sleep, in late puberty daytime LH also increase.

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52
Q

sex steroids in response to the increase in plasma LH

A

increase in sex steroids

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53
Q

growth spirt stimulated by

A

steroid hormones (oestrogen and androgens with epiphyseal closure) by oestrogen. Growth spirt for females: around 11-12, males from 13-15 (greater height gain).

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54
Q

Secondary sexual characteristics

A

develop at different chronological ages in different individual, tanner stages allows abnormalities to be detected as there is a pattern.

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55
Q

staging criteria (tanner stage)

A

allows abnormalities to be detected and comparisons to be made between individuals

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56
Q

Female tanner stages

A

1) breasts development, oestrogen secretion appearance of breast bud and formation of breast mount.
2) pubic hair overlaps with breast development
3) height spurt
4) menarche

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57
Q

male tanner stages

A

1) testes enlargemetn (Leydig cells enlarge secrete test)
2) pubic hair
3) penis elongation
4) height spurt (spermatogenesis begins and apex strength spurt)

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58
Q

the timing of puberty

A

a critical weight must be attained before the activation of hypothalamus pituitary adrenal axis can occur. Rough mean weight of females at start of menarche is ~47kg

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59
Q

precocious puberty

A

appearance of physical and hormonal signs of puberty before 7 years in female and 9 years in males. Usually a gnRH (gonadotrophin releasing hormone) dependent problem, extreme cases are due to hypothalamic tumor which is recognised by tanner stages.

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60
Q

Fetal follicle amount in females

A

~7 million

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60
Q

delayed purberty

A

lack of physical and hormonal signs of puberty ~13 F and ~14 Male maximum. Occurs when gonadotrophin signals from pituitary are inadequate for sex steroid hormone secretion. Associated with syndromes like Kallmann, Klinefields and turner.

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61
Q

menopause

A

consequence of ovaries running out of follicles (50-52y) Lat episode of natural menstrual bleeding = end of reproductive life. (<1000 follicles, menopause where no follicles left or none respond).

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62
Q

Postmenopausal oestrogen production

A

by around one year after menopause the ovary has essentially ceased producing hormones (ovarian senescence). Oestrogen production reduces to less than 1/10 of previous.

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63
Q

weak oestrogen

A

oestrone

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64
Q

peri-menopause

A

symptoms of menopause , onset of irregular cycles around ~46-~50 years

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64
Q

ovarian senescence

A

ovary has ceased producing hormones

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65
Q

pre-menopause

A

before menopause, normal menstrual sped around 40 years

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66
Q

menopausal transition

A

is the phase leading up to menopause, marked by significant hormonal changes and a gradual decline in ovarian function. This transition can vary greatly in duration and experience from one individual to another.

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67
Q

symptoms of menopause

A

varies greatly due to oestrogen deprivation during the perimenopause. Consisting of vasomotor, genitourinary symptoms, bone metabolism, behavioural and psychological changes.

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68
Q

ovarian senescences

A

by ~1 yr after menopause, ovaries ceased producing hormones. Oestrogen production lowers to less than 1/10 of previous. Oestrogen (oesterone) arises mainly from production to the stomal cells of adipose tissue.

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69
Q

physiological and behavioural symptoms of menopause

A

depression, tension, anxiety, mental confusion and loss of libido.

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70
Q

vasomotor symptoms of menopause

A

changes in vascular structures such as instability of blood vessels, hot flushes and night sweats

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71
Q

bone metabolism symptoms of menopause

A

osteoporosis

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72
Q

menopause symptoms can be managed by

A

can be prevented or arrested by oestrogen treatment known as menopausal hormone therapy (inc oestrogen as these are caused by lack of oestrogen).

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72
Q

genitourinary symptoms of menopause

A

atrophic changes and vaginal dryness

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73
Q

unlike male testicles and sperm the ovarian function differs with cyclical activity from puberty to menopause

A

few oocytes are released in the process of ovulation = ~400, a mature oocyte is released every ~28 days (regular cycle).

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74
Q

female reproductive organs

A

vagina, uterus, ovaries, and uterine/ fallopian tubes - cervix

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75
Q

how is the uterus connected to ovaries?

A

uterine tube/ oviduct

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76
Q

what is the usual orientation of the ovary/uterus to vagina

A

anteflexed uterus, 90 degree orientation of the ovary/uterus in contrast to the vagina pointing anteriorly

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77
Q

retroflexed uterus

A

affects 20-30% women where it faces 90 degrees posteriorly. This could make it painful during intercourse or menstruation

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78
Q

Ampulla of uterine tube

A

optimum site for fertilisation

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79
Q

Endometrium

A

The endometrium is the inner lining of the uterus and plays a crucial role in the reproductive cycle and pregnancy, fertilised embryo goes down uterus and implant on endometrium. Innermost lining.

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79
Q

anteflexed uterus

A

normal uterus orientation

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80
Q

where does the fertilised embryo implant on in the uterus

A

endometrium.

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81
Q

The vagina

A

is an elastic muscular 7.5-9.0 cm tube extending from the cervix to the exterior of the body with three main functions.

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82
Q

what is the three functions of the vagina

A

passageway for elimination of menstrual fluid, it recieves the penis in sex and holds spermetozoa before it passes to the uterus and forms the lower portion of the birth canal through which the fetus passes during delivery.

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83
Q

vagina and delivery

A

forms the lower portion of the birth canal through which the fetus asses during delivery.

84
Q

the uterus

A

small pear shaped organ that weights 30-40 g, pathway for sperm transport and fertilisation occurs in the uterine tube

85
Q

fundus of uterus

A

furtherest point from cervix

86
Q

can sperm enter into the vagina at any time

A

sperm can only enter a few days of the menstrual cycle

87
Q

cervix of the uterus

A

constriction at the bottom part of the uterus and prevents entry of sperm/bacteria or viruses through cervical mucus

88
Q

cervical mucus

A

prevents entry of bacteria/viruses and sperm to the uterus

89
Q

fundal height (predictions)

A

top of the uterus to pubic bone, number of cm is aprox number of weeks gestation. Increased with twins breech birth and gestational diabetes. Decreased for small or gestational age and intauterine growth restriction

90
Q

prediciting fetal growth

A

with fundal height can give us indications before ultrasounds.

91
Q

fertilisation occurs in

A

the uterine tube

92
Q

functions of the uterus

A

provides mechanical protection for the embryo and nutritional support (placenta)+ waste removal. Contractions in the muscular wall (myometrium) of the uterus are important in ejecting fetus at birth. Source of menstrual fluid.

93
Q

Layers of the uterus

A

uterine cavity, endometrium, myometrium, perimetrium.

94
Q

uterine cavity

A

the inside of the uterus (space)

95
Q

myometrium

A

muscular wall of the uterus for ejecting the fetus at time of birth (thick middle layer)

96
Q

perimetrium

A

outer layer of the uterus

97
Q

the endometrium can be subdivided into

A

the inner functional zone (stratum functionalis) that contain most uterine glands, and the outer basilar zone (stratum basalis which is adjacent to the myometrium)

98
Q

what zone attaches the endometrium to the myometrium

A

the basilar zone (stratum basalis).

99
Q

what layer is shed off in menstruation

A

the outer layer of endometrium, the stratum functionalis.

100
Q

proliterative phase

A

regulation of estrogen after menstruation phase, the endometrium stratum functionalis regrows.

101
Q

secretory phase

A

After ovulation phase/proliferative phases and develop uterine tubes.

102
Q

the phases of a cycle

A

menstrual -> preovulatory -> ovulation -> post ovulatory

103
Q

phases of endometrium regrowth

A

menstruation ->proliferation -> secretory phase -> menstruation.

103
Q

The uterine tube (fallopian)

A

provides a rich, nutritive environment containing lipids and glycogen for spermatozoa, oocyte and the developing embryo.

104
Q

Fimbriae

A

partially cover the ovary, following ovulation the oocyte is drawn into the uterine tubes by the fimbriae and down into the uterus.

105
Q

epithelium lining of the uterine tube

A

have both ciliated and nonciliated secretory columnar cells

106
Q

what are ciliated and nonciliated secretory columnar functions

A

for movement and nutrition of oocyte, sperm and embryo

107
Q

mucosa

A

also in the fallopian tube, surrounded by concentric layers of smooth muscle that contract. Transport along the tube involved a combination of both ciliary movement and peristaltic contractions to allow movement of sperm + oocycte.

108
Q

everything that aids with moment of oocyte and sperm in the fallopian tube

A

non ciliated and ciliated epithelium lining and mucosa surrounded by concentric layers of smooth muscle.

109
Q

Ectopic pregnancy

A

when fertilised embryo is implanted in any tissue other than uterine wall. Most of these occur in the uterine tube (tubal pregnancy)

110
Q

Levodopa (L-DOPA):

A

Introduced in the 1960s, this was the first major breakthrough in Parkinson’s disease treatment. Levodopa is a precursor to dopamine, the neurotransmitter that is depleted in Parkinson’s disease. In the early days, high doses were often required, which could lead to side effects like dyskinesia (involuntary movements) + schizo

111
Q

tubal pregnancy

A

fertilised embryo in the uterine tube.

111
Q

risk factors of ectopic pregnancy

A

smoking, advanced maternal age and prior tubal damage are risk factors.

112
Q

the ovary

A

adult ovaries are oval and weigh around 5-10g.

112
Q

ovary comprised of three distinct regions

A

outer ovarian cortex, central ovarian medulla and inner hilum (hilus)

113
Q

outer ovarian cortex

A

containing ovarian follicules

114
Q

central ovarian medulla

A

consists of ovarian stroma and steroid producing cells for follicular development

114
Q

inner hilus/hilum

A

acts as a point of entry for nerves and blood vessels (hormones)

115
Q

primordial follicle

A

oocyte once surrounded follicular granulosa cells from the primordial follicle. Laid down early in female development

116
Q

primary follicles

A

oocyte gets larger from primordial follicle and has a layer of granulosa cells. Secretes glycoproteins that form a translucent acellular layer (zona pellucida). Thecal cells begin to form around follicle.

117
Q

thecal cells

A

condensation of ovarian stromal cells, involved in production of steroid hormones later in development. Surrounds granulosa cells

118
Q

zona pellucida

A

glycoproteins the oocyte secretes that form a translucent acellular layer. Important for only allowing one sperm in at a time.

119
Q

before secondary follicle but after primary

A

the follicle develops in response to FSH, some get larger and produce many layers surrounding oocyte.

120
Q

secondary follicle

A

as granulosa proliferate, produces follicular fluid to surround oocyte in (nutrients). At this stage the granulosa cells around the zona pellucida fuse to form the corona radiata.

121
Q

cumulus oophorous

A

mass of loosely associated granulosa cells around zona pellucida which protect it.

121
Q

The theca of the secondary follicle.

A

develops to become the inner grandular highly vascular theca interna and the surrounding fibrous capsule, theca externa.

122
Q

interactions between granulosa and thecal cells

A

produce oestradiol.

122
Q

Mature (graffian/preovulatory follicle)

A

as oocyte grows it becomes mores suspended in the fluid, therefore it is connected to a rim of peripheral granulosa cells (by a thin stalk) to keep it suspended and connect to outside.

123
Q

ovulation

A

the growing oocyte (graafian/pre-ovulatory follicle) increase size and its position in the cortex of the ovarian stroma causes it to bulge out from the ovarian surface. As the follicle ruptures, it carries the oocyte and its surrounding mass of cumulus cells. Oocyte is collected by cilia on fimbria -> sweep cumulus mass into uterine tube

124
Q

what is the oocyte surrounded by

A

granulosa cells -> specialised into cumulus oophorous.

124
Q

Corpus luteum

A

once oocyte ejected, the antrum breaks down as the basement membrane between the granulosa and thecal layers breaks down blood and blood vessels invade. Granulosa cells form large lutein cells. (yellow chunk)

125
Q

what does the corpus luteum do in lutenisation

A

once formed from large lutein cells, and associated with producing progestagens.

126
Q

corpus albicans

A

whitesh scar tissue remaining, the corpus albicans (white body) is absorbed back into stromal tissue of ovary over weeks and months.

127
Q

Fertilisation

A

if oocyte is fertilised the embryo divides and the corpus luteum persists past its 14 day lifespan. During fertilisation hCG (human chorionic gonadotrophin) produced by the chorion 8 days after fertilisation allows for the corpus luteum to live longer than 14 days.

128
Q

hCG

A

human chorionic gonadotrophin hormone, allows for the corpus luteum to survive after 14 days for fertilisation (produced 8 days after fertilisation). This can be detected in pregnancy urine/blood.

129
Q

futile cycle

A

oocyte -> ovulation -> corpus luteum -> 14 day lifespan no fertilisation, breakdown of endometrium -> no baby

130
Q

fertile cycle

A

oocyte + sperm -> embryo -> corpus luteum lasts longer as placenta also supplements further pregnancy to produce progesterone ->baby.

131
Q

two phases of the ovarian cycle

A

follicular phase (day 1 to ovulation) and luteal phase (ovulation to menstruation).

132
Q

luteal phase

A

corpus luteum and usually 14 days, ovulation to menstruation

133
Q

follicular phase

A

day 1 - ovulation

134
Q

three phases in the uterine menstrual cycle

A

menstruation, proliferation, and secretory phases

135
Q

why a menstrual cycle as other species just reabsorb follicle rather than ejecting it

A

the human has a larger lining and more to resabsorb so it is more efficient to just eject.

136
Q

two main functions of the female reproductive tract

A

produce oocyte and incubate embryo.

136
Q

the female reproductive system first step (hormones).

A

corpus luteum regresses, oestrogen and progesterone levesl are low -> increased FSH. FSH stimulation leads to increased follicular growth.

137
Q
  1. Day 6-7 reproductive system female
A

selection of dominant follicle with increased oestradiol, increased oestradiol supress FSH (and LH) production in the pituitary as negative feedback due to having a dominant follicle.

138
Q

day ~12 female reproductive system

A

a threshold concentration of oestradiol is exceeded, if this is maintained for ~36 hours there is a temporary switch from neg to positive feed back (ovulation). Then oestrogen mediated pos feedback triggers in a rise in GnRH -> LH surge which induces ovulation

139
Q

LH induces

A

ovulation

139
Q

high levels of oestrogen

A

exerts a positive feedback effect on the hypothalamus + anterior pituitary therefore increasing secretion of GnRH and LH

140
Q

almost mature graafian follicle producing large amount oestrogens and oestrodiol from granular cells

A

prepares for LH to induce ovulated secondary oocyte to erupt and eject.

141
Q

Negative feedback (elevated progesterone levels)

A

when the corpus luteum develops, increases progesterone. Elevated levels of progesterone inhibit GnRH which results in lowered LH and FSH = demise of corpus luteum.

141
Q

sertoli cells

A

help pre-sperm become sperm

142
Q

spermatogenesis difference between oogenesis

A

oogenesis takes place in during embryonic life while baby is still in utero whereas spermatogenesis occurs only after puberty.

143
Q

Spermatogenesis takes place

A

in the seminiferous tubules of the testes and only occurs after puberty. Huge numbers of sperm produced (most) 300-600g of testis tissue/second.

144
Q

three phases of spermatogenesis

A

mitotic and meiotic division, cytodifferentiation.

144
Q

spermatogenesis kick start (puberty)

A

at puberty primary germ cells are reactivated- spermatogonial stem cells sit in the basement tuble of the membrane and undergo mitosis

144
Q

mitotic division in spermatogenesis

A

asymmetric division of cell, as one daughter cell remains undifferentiated to maintain stem cell population as the other goes off to become chain of spermatogonia via meiosis.

145
Q

where do the mitotic divisions occur in spermatogenesis

A

in the basal compartment of the seminiferous tubules.

146
Q

how many chromosomes do spermatogonia have?

A

46 chromosomes

147
Q

when mitotic divisions are complete of spermetagonia

A

The spermetagonia move between (squeeze through) adjacent sertoli cells to reach the adluminal compartment of the seminiferous tubules.

148
Q

when spermatogonia reach the adluminal compartment

A

they become spermatocytes, this is where they undergo meiosis.

148
Q

Spermatocytes meiosis

A

spermatocytes undergo meiosis I and DNA content doubles, each still have 46 chromosomes. -> primary spermatocytes divide -> secondary (23 chromosomes, each 2 chromatids). Secondary spermatocytes divide very rapidly -> meiosis II -> four spermatids with 23 chromosomes.

149
Q

first stage sperm called

A

spermatogonia

149
Q

primary spermatogonia are called

A

spermatocytes (after adluminal and start of meiosis)

150
Q

the end product of meiosis of spermatocytes (secondary)

A

four spermatids.

151
Q

what is the final process of spermatogenesis

A

is called spermiogenesis/cytodifferentiation

152
Q

spermiogenesis/cytodifferentiation

A

becoming spermatozoa as they specialise and differentiate their shape.

153
Q

Process of spermiogenesis/cytodifferentiation

A

sperm move into the lumen of the seminiferous tubules, the round spermatids form a tail, mid piece and head. The midpiece is packed with mitochondria to produce energy. Head will contain DNA and packed with acrosome. Spermhead (elongated) becomes hydrodynamically adapted.

154
Q

residual body of the sperm

A

excess cytoplasm packed with amino acids and nutrients shed off from the sperm that is phagocytosed by sertoli cells

155
Q

Spermatozoa acrosome head

A

important for oocyte fertilisation as the acrozome reaches the zone pellucida and dissolves the shell to penetrate for fertilisation.

156
Q

hormonal control of spermatogenesis LH pathway

A

hypothalamus (GnRH) -> FSH and LH via anterior pituitary -> LH travel to testes (leydig cells outside tubules) bind to produce testosterone -> DHT -> secondary sexual characteristics

157
Q

hormonal control of spermatogenesis FSH pathway

A

hypothalamus GnRH -> Anterior pituitary FSH -> travel to sertoli cells inside seminiferous tubules (in direct contact with spermatogonia)-> produce androgen binding protein to transport androgens and keep supply of test in testes to produce sperm.

158
Q

testosterone kept in the testes by androgen binding proteins

A

this is required as sperm cannot be made without testosterone. Mitotic spermatogonia divison can occur without test but meiotic requires test.

159
Q

GnRH is released in (spermatogenesis hormonal control)

A

the hypothalamus in pulses

160
Q

DHT is aggressive therefore there is a negative feedback process

A

testosterone travels with the androgen binding protein back to the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary where it turns of the production of GnRH + FSH & LH.

161
Q

FSH and LH can be controlled seperately: FSH can be controlled by

A

when FSH binds to sertoli cells and produces inhibin, which travels back via the blood back to the anterior pituitary to turn off FSH.

162
Q

male infertility

A

many causes, common diagnosis when sperm count >20 million/ml. This can be oligospermia, azoospermia, or immotile sperm.

163
Q

oligospermia

A

some sperm

164
Q

azoospermia

A

no sperm

165
Q

In vitro fertilisation IVF

A

can be an alternative for those who have some working sperm, as oocytes are harvested ex vivo and requires roughly 50k motile sperm.

166
Q

ICSI intra cytoplasmic sperm injection

A

alternative for those with no sperm ejaculate or immotile sperm as a single sperm is directly injected in oocyte, sperm can be collected via biopsy straight from the testes.

167
Q

orchidectomy

A

removal of testis

168
Q

the testes

A

located in the scrotum, in humans the testes move to the scrotum from the pelvis during pregnancy.

169
Q

cryptorchidism

A

when the testes do not descend from the pelvis into the scrotum during pregnancy, affects 3% of term babies and if testes stay in pelvis = infertility or later can risk cancer.

170
Q

epididymis

A

sperm acquire the ability to be motile and fertilise while in the epididymis (10-14 days). The epididymis also reabsorbs liquid around the sperm to make it more concentrated

171
Q

reproductive tract

A

testes sperm production in seminiferous tubules -> rete testis (Collection site) -> epididymis -> vas deferens -> loop up and over bladder -> join to urethra -> past prostate gland -> penile urethra.

172
Q

vas deferens

A

site for the storage of sperm (largest and can store for a while) after epididymis. About 45cm long, running up the epididymis and around the bladder and back down to join ejaculatory duct at the prostate gland.

173
Q

seminal vesicles

A

empty into ejaculatory duct which joins the urethra at the prostate

174
Q

urethra

A

20 cm long and runs from the bladder through to prostate to the end of the penis.

174
Q

prostaglandins

A

causes female contractions to aid sperm swimming.

175
Q

seminal vesicle fluid

A

contains fructose (energy source), alkaline, prostaglandins (causes female contractions) and contains clotting proteins

176
Q

seminal fluid in ejaculation

A

the fluid after the sperm to be ejected out the vas defrens -> ejaculatory duct to wash out the sperm through the male reproductive tract

176
Q

the prostate

A

donut -golf ball shape -> urethra runs through the prostate and the prostate secretes fluid that ejaculates before sperm.

177
Q

seminial vesicles

A

not site of sperm storage, secretes mucoid-> seminal fluid which has postaglandins, clotting proteins, alkaline and fructose.

178
Q

order of fluid ejaculated

A

1) prostate fluid
2) sperm
3) seminal vesicle fluid

179
Q

the prostate secretion

A

slightly acidic (6.5 pH) and can buffer with the seminal vesicle fluid to neutralise. Contains citrate for atp, milky colour with phosphate and calcium. Contains prostate specific antigen (PSA) that breaks down coagulate.

180
Q

what sperms use as an energy source

A

fructose and citrate (ATP).

181
Q

semen volume

A

semen is a mixture of secretions and has a pH of 7.5 -> neutralises against the acidic vagina. Consists of 10% sperm, 60% seminal vesicle fluid and 30% prostate secretions with small amounts of other fluids.

182
Q

who does beningn prostate hyperphasia affect and implications on health care

A

rare in men >40, but gradually increased risk in older men. 90% of men over 85. 300,000 surgeries and >2 billion in medical fees per year.

182
Q

beningn prostate hyperphasia

A

not cancerous, overgrowth of the prostate but grows inward due to encapsulated nature, occludes the urethra and causes blockage. Results in trouble voiding the bladder, kidney issues and urinary tract infections.

182
Q

how much semen should there be?

A

semen varies greatly in volume but humans should be around 2-5ml, normal human contains at least 20 mil sperm/ml

182
Q

prostate cancer

A

affects older men, most common cause of death worldwide 2nd in usa. 29% of male cancer diagnosis. elevated PSA, prostate sensitive antigen can be a marker for prostate cancer.

182
Q

Treatments of beningn prostate hyperphasia

A

5 a-reductase inhibitors: finasteride and dutasteride which inhibit the growth of the prostate and may shrink it long term. The enzyme inhibits the 5 a-reductase which is responsible for converting testosterone into DHT as BPH is androgen sensitive.

183
Q

prostate cancer counter

A

waiting game, or androgen inhibitors/ inhibit testosterone so no action of androgens or 5a-reductase (finasteride/dutasteride). Or survery prostatetomy (removal).

183
Q

finasteride

A

long half life of 5 weeks.

183
Q

duasteride half lives

A

short half life of 5-7 hours

184
Q

three major structures of the penis

A

corpus cavernosa (main erectile tissues), corpus spongiosum- surrounds penile urethra to prevent occlusion during erection. Penile urethra, runs along center of spongiosum and conducts semen/urine.

185
Q

erection

A

sexual stimulation -> release NO and prostaglandin E1-> cause corpus cavernosa smooth muscle to relax. Blood fill spaces of corpora cavernosa (8x more blood erect than flaccid). The engorgement of the corpora reduces venous outflow, adding to the engorgement.

186
Q

NO and postaglandin E1

A

released when penis receives sexual stimulation.

186
Q

viagra- sildenafil

A

Increases GMP (guanosine monophosphate, 2nd messenger that reduces intracellular calcium) inhibits enzyme phosphodiesterase that breaks down GMP -> allows relaxation of the corpus cavernosa -> erection.

187
Q

progesterone is produced by

A

the corpus luteum and of the placenta.

188
Q

posterior pituitary produces

A

oxytocin and ADH (antidiuretic hormone for water balance).

189
Q

which pituitary responds directly to hypothalamic neurons

A

the posterior pituitary, as well as connected via neural hypophyseal portal.

190
Q

which pituitary side is connected to the hypothalamus via the hypophyseal portal (vascular connection)

A

the anterior pituitary.

190
Q

which pituitary side is connected to the hypothalamus via the hypophyseal portal (neural connection)

A

posterior pituitary.

191
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uni (6 decks)

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