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uni > medsci 142 nervous and endocrine > Flashcards

medsci 142 nervous and endocrine Flashcards

1
Q

left dominance

A

for language

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2
Q

frontal association cortex responsible for

A

intelligence, personality, behaviour mood and cognitive function

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3
Q

Parietal association cortex

A

spatial skills, 3d recog (shapes faces concepts abstract perception)

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4
Q

temporal association cortex

A

memory mood aggression and intelligence.

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5
Q

Precentral gyrus

A

before central sulcus and in frontal lobe, homonculus mapping structure as primary motor cortex, containing large motor neurons (Primidial neurons /motor neurons). Big neurons for long axons connecting to periphery.

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6
Q

pre motor/planning cortex

A

before pre central gyrus with similar homonculus mapping, tells primary motor cortex when specific movement needs to occur and plans motor movement (coordinates)

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7
Q

Post central gyrus

A

PRIMARY SENSORY CORTEX behind central sulcus in parietal lobe, has similar homonculus mapping, responsible for sensory reception with small granule cells.

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8
Q

Mcdonalds in parietal lobe

A

contains two marginal gyrus

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8
Q

Supra marginal gyrus

A

part of maccas and responsible for reading in parietal lobe

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9
Q

angular marginal gyrus

A

part of maccas for writing in parietal lobe

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10
Q

behind parietal lobe

A

parieto occipital sulcus

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11
Q

parieto occipital sulcus

A

at the division between the parietal and occipital lobes

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12
Q

primary visual cortex

A

behind the parieto occipital sulcus, visual periphery info from eye goes to secondary visual cortex in rest of occipital lobe and some of temporal lobe. Interpreting visual haps in periphery.

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13
Q

secondary visual cortex

A

in occipital lobe and takes info from primary visual cortex.

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13
Q

lateral/sylvian fissure

A

begins near the basal forebrain and extends to the lateral surface of the brain separating the frontal and parietal lobe from the temporal lobe.

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14
Q

primary auditory cortex

A

part of temporal lobe and a bit of parietal lobe within sylvian fissure, takes sound and organises into a system of tones and time.

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14
Q

Wernickes area

A

secondary cortical area under the primary auditory cortex in the temporal lobe responsible for interpreting speech and language.

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15
Q

The cerebrum

A

‘seat of intelligence’ provides ability to read, write and speak. Contains outer cerebral cortex, internal reigon of cerebral white matter and gray matter nuclei deep within white matter.

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16
Q

primary somatosensory area

A

1, 2 and 3 located behind central sulcus (primary sensory area- post central gyrus)

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17
Q

primary gustatory area

A

base of post central gyrus superior to the lateral cerebral sulcus in parietal cortex. Receives impulses for taste and involved in gustatory perception and discrimination.

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18
Q

Primary olfactory area

A

in temporal lobe receives impulses for smell and involved in olfactory perception.

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19
Q

Brocas speech area

A

located in the frontal lobe close to lateral cerebral sulcus. Nerve impulses from this area pass through the premotor regions that control muscles of the larynx, pharynx and mouth resulting in specific, coordinated muscle contractions. (Speech formation).

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20
Q

Association areas

A

association areas connected to one another via association tracts

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21
Q

sensory homonculus

A

distorted somatic map of the body, where somatic sensations originate. Representation of the human body in the brain and the different areas of the brain correspond to areas of the body

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22
Q

Exner’s area

A

above brocas, involved in both writing and reading and anterior to primary motor control area.

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23
Q

arcuate fasciculus function

A

white matter bundle of short and long fibers connecting the parietal, temporal and frontal lobes. Which aligns speech recognition/comprehension with speech production.

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24
Q

Majority of the population is dominant in what side of the brain?

A

Left, and right non-dominant. The Left is dominant for language as there is the wernickes, brocas areas and supra/angular gyruses.

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25
Q

What happens when there is a lesion or damage to the wernickes area

A

Wernickes sensory aphasia, or fluent aphasia, where the person cannot interpret language well but can still communicate their ideas.

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26
Q

What happens when there is a lesion or damage to the Brocas area

A

Broca’s aphasia/ non fluent or motor aphasia. The difficulty to express ideas and feelings but can understand language.

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27
Q

Arcuate fasciulus

A

A bundle of white matter (long and short fibres) that connects the Wernickes and Brocas area

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28
Q

White matter

A

consists of axon tracks out of neurons that transmit impulses across more distant regions of the brain and spinal cord.

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28
Q

Grey matter

A

The cell bodies of neurons and their dendrites.

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29
Q

What happens when there is a lesion or damage to the arcuate fasciulus?

A

Connectional aphasia, where the connection between brocas and wernickes area is damaged, hence language difficulties will occur.

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30
Q

Broca’s area

A

Located in the frontal lobe near the premotor/planning cortex (or in). The planning part of the cortex and responsible for speech planning.

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31
Q

Cingulate gyrus

A

visible in the medial view of the brain above ventricles in the brain.

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32
Q

What part is the forebrain?

A

Contains the entire cerebrum and several structures directly nestled within it

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33
Q

Where is the midbrain?

A

Under the hypothalamus at the top most part of the brain stem.

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34
Q

Which parts are the hind brain?

A

The lower part of the brain and most of the brain stem and cerebrum.

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35
Q

What are the protective structures of the spinal cord?

A

The three meninges

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36
Q

What are the three meninges?

A

The Pia mater, Arachnoid mater and Dura mater.

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37
Q

What passes through the dorsal root of the spinal cord?

A

The sensory fibres of the spinal nerve

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38
Q

What passes through the ventral root of the spinal cord?

A

the motor fibres of the spinal nerve

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39
Q

Fasciculus

A

bundle of white matter

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40
Q

Wernickes area fasciculus

A

joins to brocas area, supra marginal gyrus and angular marginal gyrus for its left side dominance in language

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40
Q

Non dominant hemisphere

A

Non verbal language (body language), emotional expression (tone of language), 3D spatial skills, conceptual understanding and music/artistic skills.

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41
Q

Injury to the non dominant hemisphere results in

A

loss of non verbal language, speech lacks emotion, spatial disorientation, inability to recognize familiar objects and loss of musical appreciation.

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42
Q

How many cervical nerves

A

8 paired vertebrate + nerves that have a cervical enlargement around the 5-6th to accommodate for the large amount of information coming to the spinal cord from the arms.

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43
Q

Thoracic nerves

A

12 nerves under the cervical nerves that corresponds to one set of ribs per nerve, no enlargement as there are no large limbs.

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43
Q

Lumbar nerves

A

Located under thoracic nerves, 5 nerves with a lot of thin fibres (caudal equina) which are completely bathed in cerebrospinal fluid

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44
Q

cerebrospinal fluid

A

Located in and around the hollow spaces of the brain and spinal cord, acts as a cushion for shock and supports the brain + providing lubrication to surrounding bones.

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45
Q

The spinal cord is protected by

A

3 distinct layers called the meninges.

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46
Q

First protective layer of the meninges

A

Pia mater, tightly clings onto the surface of brain and spinal cord, delicate.

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47
Q

second protective layer of meninges

A

Arachnoid mater which is attached and detached in different parts that cover the brain and spinal cord.

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48
Q

the third protective layer (meninges)

A

‘tough mother’ protects and keeps cerebrospinal fluid inside the spinal cord

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49
Q

Dorsal rootlet

A

Rootlets approx 5 per level on the spinal cord to distribute information across the spinal cord. One side of the spinal cord info going into spinal cord and areas where info going out to motor control neurons to control muscle cause rootlets to come together to form a single nerve.

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49
Q

Spinal nerve

A

The coming together of a dorsal and ventral root and its information to and from periphery.

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50
Q

Coming together of Pia mater

A

Pia mater comes together and forms a string like fibre surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid around conus medullaris.

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51
Q

Dura mater coming together

A

forms a fluid filled sack and creates a string called filum Terminale externum string that holes the spinal cord down (anchored for movement.

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52
Q

Dermatome

A

areas of the skin on the body that relies on specific nerve connections on the spine. Each spinal nerve corresponds to a specific dermatome which is mapped out over the entire body.

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53
Q

Myotome

A

group of muscles that is innervated by single spinal nerve root. Myotomes are mapped out on the musculature of the body. Each spinal nerve root carries motor (and sensory) fibers that innervate specific muscles in a predictable pattern.

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54
Q

Difference between myotome and dermatome

A

dermatomes control sensation while myotomes control movement

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55
Q

Touch meissners corpuscle/ pressure paccinian corpuscle

A

An encapsulated receptor that surrounds end of neuron and sits within skin. Surrounded by myelin which increases efficiency and fire rate it is constantly firing in response to the periphery.

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56
Q

Touch meissners corpuscle nerve fibres and the fire rate.

A

Pseudo uni polar neurons 50m/s

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56
Q

Where does the pseudo uni polar neuron fibres go

A

into the spinal nerve and then dorsal root ganglia (bunch of neurons) in the enlargement where the cell body sits, then fibres go into either two parts of the spine?

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57
Q

Free nerve ending responding to pain/temp

A

Only occasionally activated therefore unmyelinated (not encapsulated) and insensitive to touch, fires at 1m/s, significantly slower.

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58
Q

Where does the pain/temp free nerve ending go?

A
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59
Q

discriminative information

A

Touch or pressure. The ability to discern between different tactile stimuli such as the location of objects touching the skin

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60
Q

non discriminative information

A

pain and temperature (cant really localise the information like touch/pressure)

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61
Q

The spinal cord inside is filled with what? and divided into how many sections of function?

A

grey matter cell body neurons with three distinct areas.

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62
Q

Inside of spinal cord grey matter divided into

A

the first most ventral part: motor area, the second autonomic functions area (balance) and the lastly most dorsal sensory part consisting of grey matter.

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63
Q

The most dorsal white matter part of the spinal cord

A

Consists of Dorsal funiculus/columns and is divided into a lateral part called the cuneate fasciculus and a medial gracile fasiculus that carries discriminative info.

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64
Q

The lateral funiculus on the most lateral side of the spinal cord

A

located below ventral funiculus consists of motor columns of white matter

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65
Q

Ventral funiculus

A

located at the most ventral side of the spinal cord and consists of white matter controlling pain and temp.

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66
Q

Nucleus proprius

A

where the second route of the discriminative information neuron fibers head towards located in the sensory part of the grey matter in the spinal cord.

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66
Q

In the spinal cord where does the myelinated pseudo uni polar neuron go?

A

enters the dorsal root and has a cell body in the enlargement, the fibre goes two either two different routes, straight to the dorsal columns on a homonculuar map or to nucleus proprius for discriminate sensation info. Fibers synapse there and goes back to the dorsal columns in a method for convergence.

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67
Q

Where does the unmyelinated free nerve ending go?

A

Heads into the dorsal root with a cell body in the enlargement, the fibers head towards the lowermost part of the sensory area of grey matter in the spinal cord called the substantia gelatinosa, synapses to a nerve that CROSSES over to the ventral funiculus for pain and temp.

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68
Q

Substantia gelatinosa

A

transparent area in the sensory area of grey matter in the spinal cord, transparent for unmyelinated nerves.

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69
Q

What is the area where the white matter crosses over in the indiscriminate nerve track

A

ventral/anterior white commisure.

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69
Q

Difference between the discriminate and indiscriminate info track

A

indiscriminate info crosses over to the other segmental side in the spinal cord whereas discriminate stays on the same side.

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70
Q

Brown sequard syndrome

A

a lesion at on side of the neuron carrying information (eg right), therefore cannot feel discriminate info on the right and indiscriminate info on the left and left side non discriminate info crosses over.

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70
Q

Lesion of one side of the brain stem (eg right)

A

Associative sensory loss, both associated to C8 lost on the specific side while the other side remains unaffected.

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70
Q

Conduction speed of non discriminate info

A

not myelinated at 1 m/s (slow)

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71
Q

What is the conduction speed for discriminate info

A

heavily myelinated at 50 m/s (fast)

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72
Q

Function of non discriminative info

A

pain and temp sensation info (nociception)

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73
Q

Function of discriminative info

A

Touch and pressure sensation info (proprioception)

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74
Q

Where does the first neuron terminate in discriminate info

A

dorsal column nuclei, either gracile or cuneate nucleus

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75
Q

Where does the first neuron terminate in non discriminate info

A

ventral horn substantia gelatinosa

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75
Q

where does the discriminate info decussate

A

internal arcuate fibers in the lower medulla.

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76
Q

where does the non - discriminate info decussate (cross over)

A

anterior white commisure

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77
Q

Basal ganglia

A

A large group of neurons (ganglia) Consists of five distinct nuclei that coordinates smooth movements such as mood and expression of mood (smooth movement control) that carries information for the planning of motor movement.

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78
Q

The first and second nucleus of the basal ganglia

A

The caudate nucleus and the putamen which make up the striatum and acts like one nucleus. They are connected by fibers.

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79
Q

The third nucleus of the basal ganglia

A

globus paladius which consists of two segments, the internus (closest to the thalamus) and the externus.

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80
Q

The forth nucleus of the basal ganglia

A

subthalamic nucleus directly under the thalamus

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81
Q

the last nucleus of the basal ganglia

A

substantia nigra (under the subthalamic nucleus and in the mid brain). Responsible for 90% of the dopamine produced in the brain.

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82
Q

Monosynaptic reflex

A

a fast reflex that activates opposite set of muscles to move quickly. Enters the dorsal root to the dorsal motor columns and synapses to a lower motor neuron in the grey matter and goes out the ventral root to contract muscles.

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82
Q

Lateral corticospinal tract

A

makes up of around 85% of the crossed over fibers and allows smooth movement control near the spinal cord.

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82
Q

what happens when there is a lesion in the upper motor neuron tract

A

spastic paralysis (stiffness and rigidity) due to the lack of lower motor neuron control due to disconnection from high level control to LMN.

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83
Q

Pyramidial decussation

A

80% fibers cross over at this point of the corticospinal tract.

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84
Q

Parkinsons disease

A

Where the substantia nigra cells are affected -> lower dopamine -> more toxic glutamate -> striatum nerves affected -> parkinsons -> flat face, slow activation of muscle and stiffness + rigidity.

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84
Q

What happens when there is a lesion in the lower motor neuron

A

Flaccid paralysis as there is no muscle control or LMN to allow contraction of the muscle.

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85
Q

Hypoactivity/ hypoexcitability

A

Inhibitors in striatum affected -> inhibitor to thalamus fires constantly and affects glutamatergic neuron to the cerebral cortex -> hypo excitability/activity.

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86
Q

corpuscle for touch

A

meissners corpuscle

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86
Q

Sensory nerves

A

known as afferent nerves bring sense info into nervous systems

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86
Q

CNS organs

A

brain and spinal cord

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87
Q

PNS

A

cranial nerves, spinal nerves, peripheral nerves and ganglia

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88
Q

What is the corpuscle for pressure

A

pacinians corpuscle

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89
Q

Motor neurons

A

efferent neurons

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90
Q

Neurons cell structure

A

consists of a cell body with dendrites and thin long extensions of the cytoplasm being the axon covered in myelin sheath and branching out into axon terminals.

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90
Q

Somatic control

A

voluntary control with the skeletal muscle.

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91
Q

Autonomic control

A

involuntary control and can be divided into sympathetic or parasympathetic which controls the cardiac muscle, smooth muscle and glands. Controls body’s internal responses.

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92
Q

Myelinated nerve structure

A

axon in the center, covered by a myelin sheath and a Schwann cell that contains a membrane that has a protein called myelin.

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93
Q

unmyelinated nerve structure

A

consists of axons and also Schwann cells but no wrapping of myelin (insulated later).

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94
Q

The nerve component attaching synapsing on another to send information.

A

presynaptic neuron

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95
Q

The nerve component receiving information from a nerve synapse

A

postsynaptic neuron

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96
Q

the gap inbetween two synapsing nerves

A

gap-synaptic cleft

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97
Q

sympathetic division associated with

A

exercise, emotion and excitement.

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97
Q

ALARM RESPONSE

A

sympathetic responses (fight or flight).
Heart increased rate and force of contraction, pupil dilation, decreased salivation dilation of bronchi for oxygen, skin contraction of Arrector Pili muscles and increased secretion from sweat glands to induce cooling. Constriction of blood vessels epically in skin, decreased digestion and increased blood sugar/pressure + water retention.

98
Q

RELAXATION RESPONSE

A

parasympathetic response, heart decreased rate and force of attraction, contraction of pupils, increased salivation and digestion. Constriction of bronchi, dilation of peripheral blood vessels (warmer surface).

99
Q

parasympathetic division associated with

A

repletion, rest and relaxation.

100
Q

Differences in neurotransmitters used for autonomic and somatic nervous systems

A

somatic systems only use acetylcholine while autonomic uses acetylcholine and norepinphrine.

101
Q

Effectors of ANS vs SNS

A

smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands in ANS and skeletal muscle in SNS

102
Q

differences between motor pathway between autonomic and somatic nervous systems.

A

one neuron pathway in somatic nervous systems and two neuron pathway in autonomic.

103
Q

How are the different cortexes of the brain connected?

A

By bundles of white matter/ white matter tracks (axon tracks).

104
Q

non dominant hemisphere

A

non verbal language, emotional expression- tone of language, 3D spatial skills, conceptual understanding, artistic/ musical skills.

105
Q

Cervical nerves

A

1-8 paired nerves, around 5-6 is the cervical enlargement.

106
Q

Thoracic nerves

A

1-12 nerves

107
Q

Lumbar nerves

A

1-5, spagetti fibers occur called the cauda equina.

108
Q

Spagetti fibers in the spine by the lumbar nerves

A

cauda equina

109
Q

1 nerve from the coccyx

A

coccygeal nerve

110
Q

fused vertebrate

A

bottom of the spinal cord, consists of 1-5 nerves called the sacral nerves (1 nerve fiber each).

111
Q

order of nerves and spine column

A

cervical nerves 1-8, thoracic nerves 1-12, lumbar nerves 1-5, fused vertebrate 1-5 and coccygeal nerve.

111
Q

At the level of L1 at the conus medullaris

A

it comes together as the spinal cord tapers off and anchors at the level of the coccyx. Filled with CSF.

112
Q

name of the string that anchors the conus medullaris to the coccyx at the level of L1

A

filum terminale

113
Q

Rootlets

A

spinal cord information distribution, it can come together to form a nerve. Rootlets distributes info around the spinal cord. These form the dorsal root and eventually the spinal nerve.

114
Q

The spinal nerve contains

A

dorsal root information and ventral root information too and from the periphery.

115
Q

dermatome and function

A

where is the skin sending the information back to the brain from, figure out problems with parts of the nervous system as we can tell what areas are connected to what by knowing where the nervous system is sending the information to.

116
Q

myotome

A

where muscles are being innervated from

117
Q

ventral

A

anterior (front)

118
Q

dorsal

A

posterior (back)

119
Q

receptor

A

surrounds the end of a neuron and sits in the skin, the can either be the encapsulated touch meissners corpuscle or the pressure paccinian corpuscle. d

120
Q

the dorsal segment under the grey matter of the spinal cord is called

A

the dorsal funiculus, which can be divided into the lateral cuneate fasiculus and the medial gracile fasiculus (innermost). These can be grouped to be the called the dorsal columns that carry discriminate information. These are white matter

121
Q

Gracile fasiculus (medial)

A

the innermost segment of the dorsal columns

121
Q

function of filum terminale

A

prevent constant elongation and shrinkage of the spinal cord during movement.

122
Q

The spinal butterfly shaped grey matter can be divided up into three segments

A

the lowermost dorsal segment is for sensory information, the middle is autonomic and the most ventral segment is responsible for motor movement.

123
Q

Conduction speed for free nerve ending vs myelinated pseudo uni polar neurons

A

1/ms compared to 50m/s

123
Q

cuneate fasiculus (lateral)

A

the outermost segment of the dorsal columns.

124
Q

the most ventral segment of white matter above the motor columns in the spinal cord are

A

the ventral funiculus which carry non discriminative temperature and pressure information.

124
Q

receptors house which kind of heavily myelinated neuron?

A

Pseudo uni polar neurons.

125
Q

the lateral side segment of white matter above the dorsal columns are

A

the motor columns or the lateral funiculus

126
Q

what are the three segments of white matter in the spinal cord

A

the ventral funiculus, the motor columns (lateral funiculus) and the dorsal columns (dorsal funiculus).

127
Q

What is the route of travel for the pseudo uni polar neuron?

A

It enters the dorsal root and has a cell body there, then splits to either synapse to around the gracile fasiculus of the dorsal columns or the nucleus proprius (grey matter) then give rise to another neuron that synapses back to the gracile fasiculus.

128
Q

Convergence (nerves)

A

packaging information from multiple nerves into one nerve to send up the spinal cord.

129
Q

proprius nucleus

A

area of grey matter in the middle of the sensory segment in the spinal cord that deals with proprioception (discriminative information).

129
Q

the route of the free nerve ending pathway throughout the spinal cord for pain and temperature pathway

A

Enters the dorsal root and has a cell body there, then goes to the back part of the sensory segment of the grey matter in the spinal cord called the substantia gelatinosa then gives rise to another neuron that travels across the spinal cord to the ventral funiculus.

130
Q

Ventral, anterior white commissure

A

where the non discriminate free nerve ending crosses over to reach the dorsal funiculus in the spinal cord.

131
Q

Difference between the free nerve ending pathway for non discriminative info and the pseudo uni polar neuron?

A

The non discriminative info carried by nerves travel from one side of the spinal cord to the over (crosses over) whereas the pseudo uni polar neuron stays on its respective side.

132
Q

Substantia gelatinosa

A

The dorsal most segment in the grey matter of the sensory segment in the spinal cord. Contains opoid receptors, and where the non discriminative information pathway goes.

133
Q

Dorsal column - medial lemniscal system

A

Pathway of discriminative sensation

133
Q

decussation

A

crossing over

134
Q

commisure

A

white matter that crosses over

135
Q

Dorsal column nuclei and where they are

A

Cuneate and gracile nucleus which sit in the lower medulla.

136
Q

Dorsal column -> medial lemniscal system of discriminative sensation pathway

A

Myelinated nerves go into the dorsal root where the cell body is, it has two routes but eventually make it to the dorsal columns -> cuneate and gracile nuclei (dorsal column nuclei) -> second order neuron crosses over via int. acuate fibers -> up the medulla, pons and midbrain -> third order neuron in the thalamus -> through internal capsule to the primary sensory cortex.

136
Q

function of thalamus in the non discriminate and discriminate pathways

A

organising and prioritizing information/relevant info based on importance. Filtering the information to bring attention toward what is needed.

136
Q

Spinothalamic pathway

A

pathway carrying pain and temperature information (non discriminative)

137
Q

pathway of spinothalamic tract of non discriminative information

A

free nerve ending -> dorsal root -> terminates at the substantia gelatinosa -> second neuron decussates at the anterior white commissure and travels to the ventral funiculus and up to the medulla -> pons -> thalamus -> internal capsule -> primary sensory cortex.

138
Q

Brown sequared syndrome

A

a lesion that affects one side of the spinal cord nerves. Eg compression on one side of the spinal cord and elongation on the other. Therefore all the discriminative information will be lost due to the lesion but non discriminative will be lost on the other side of the body (info crossover.)

139
Q

Dissociative sensory loss

A

discriminative info being lost a site of lesion and non discriminative lost on the opposite side of the body.

140
Q

associative sensory loss

A

lesion further up in the spinothalamic tract/DCLS causing a loss of discriminative and non discriminative sensation on one side.

141
Q

where does the neurons terminate in the spinothalamic tract

A

the substantia gelatinosa and second neuron terminates in the thalamus to give rise to the third going to the primary sensory cortex.

142
Q

Where does the spinothalamic tract decussate

A

ventral anterior white commissure

143
Q

where does the first neuron terminate in the dorsal column - medial lemniscal system

A

dorsal column nuclei

144
Q

primary motor neurons can also be called

A

motor neurons, pyramidal neurons or upper motor neurons. Betz cells.

145
Q

Basal ganglia

A

made of 5 distinct nuclei to coordinate smooth movement (activation of movement). Deals with mood and expression of mood. Also referred to as the subcortical grey matter. Also called the extrapyramidal system.

146
Q

Most common type of promoting/excitatory neurotransmitter

A

glutamate

146
Q

Internal capsule

A

acts as a motor pathway between the basal ganglia nuclei

147
Q

What are the five nuclei of the basal ganglia

A

The first being the caudate nucleus which is connected to the putamen making the striatum, the globus pallidius which is seperated into the internus and externus. Finally the substantia nigra and the subthalamic nucleus.

148
Q

most common type of inhibitory neurotransmitter

A

GABA, gamma amino butyric acid.

149
Q

Dopamine is excitatory or inhibitory?

A

Can be both, the receptor determines whether it is excitatory or inhibitory.

150
Q

Corticospinal tract (pyramidial tract) - MOTOR CORTEX

A

how information from the cortex travels down to the spinal cord after motor planning has occured

151
Q

Motor system begins in?

A

input from the planning part of the motor cortex. The neurotransmitter is glutamate (excitatory)

151
Q

Monosynaptic reflex

A

allows us to activate opposite set of muscles so we can move quickly (this is not dealt with by the brain) info comes directly to the dorsal root and synapses to a lower motor neuron in the motor segment of the grey matter in the spinal cord. This exits the ventral root and activates the muscle in a SINGLE SYNAPSE.

152
Q

What is the motor system

A

planning motor cortex -> glutamate to striatum -> three different neurons reaching to globus pallidus (internus and externus) and substantia nigra. At the same time a neuron from the substantia nigra synapses to the striatum to innervate the three neurons -> adds dopamine to prime nerves ready for glutamate activation.

153
Q

what neurotransmitter is used from the neurons extending out of the striatum in the motor system?

A

GABA (inhibitory).

154
Q

spastic paralysis

A

lesion affecting the upper motor neuron area which disconnects lower motor neuron and upper motor neuron, resulting in stiffness and rigidity.

154
Q

Parkinsons disease mechanisms

A

Problem associated with the basal ganglia (substantia nigra) which results in dopamine reduction which requires a large amount of glutamine.

154
Q

post motor planning to motor movement system

A

primary motor cortex -> internal capsule -> spinal cord -> lower motor neuron -> activates muscle

155
Q

flaccid paralysis

A

lesion disconnecting lower motor neuron site which removes all neural input to muscle therefore no control over the muscle.

156
Q

Parkinsons disease symptoms

A

Hypertonia, flatness of face, slower activation of movement, loss of executive function as the frontal lobe needs dopamine. GABA fires more therefore inhibiting glutamatergic neurons and resulting in hypo excitability/ hypo activity.

157
Q

Central nervous system

A

Brain and spinal cord

158
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A

peripheral nerves, ganglia, cranial and spine nerves.

159
Q

Neuron structure

A

Cell body with dendrites, long axon depending on its function and axon terminals. Has a myelin sheath or not also dependent on function.

159
Q

Sensory/afferent nerves

A

bring information to the CNS

159
Q

Two classes of autonomic nerves

A

parasympathetic and sympathetic

159
Q

motor/efferent nerves

A

bring information from CNS to the parts of the body

160
Q

the two types of motor neurons

A

voluntary/somatic nerves (eg skeletal muscle) or involuntary/autonomic nerves (cardiac/smooth muscle)

161
Q

what do autonomic nerves control

A

involuntary -> smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands

162
Q

Myelinated nerve structure

A

axon is wrapped around by the myelin sheath as insulation, with a schwann cell.

162
Q

what do somatic nerves control

A

voluntary-> skeletal muscle

163
Q

unmyelinated nerve structure

A

axons are not wrapped by insulating layer or schwann cell over top.

164
Q

schwann cell

A

structure in nerves with myelin or no myelin

165
Q

How do nerves carry information to each other?

A

Nerve synapsing.

166
Q

post synaptic neuron

A

the one connected to the pre synaptic neuron and is receiving the nerve impulse.

166
Q

Pre-synpatic neuron

A

nerve that brings an electrical signal from one nerve to the other.

167
Q

How a nerve impulse gets transferred (FIRST STEP): mechanism

A

something triggers a change in voltage in the cell body of the presynaptic neuron, tiny voltage spike reaches the bulb -> when the voltage changes in the axon terminus changes -> changes structure of some transmembrane proteins (votage-gated Ca2+ channel) -> Ca2+ enters the bulb and changes the behaviour of the cytoplasm.

168
Q

synaptic cleft

A

the space between presynaptic and post synaptic neuron.

169
Q

How a nerve impulse gets transferred (AFTER CA2+ INPUT): mechanism

A

vesicles in the cytoplasm after being affected by calcium moves toward the synaptic cleft and fuse with the axon terminus membrane and releases the contents of the vesicles called neurotransmitters. Therefore the neurotransmitters are released into the small liquid cleft in the synaptic cleft.

169
Q

relaxation response

A

constricted pupils, decreased HR and contraction, vasodilation of peripheral arterioles, decreased sweat, increased digestion and increase in salivary secretion. Constrict bronchi for slower breathing.

170
Q

the alarm response

A

dilated pupils, increased HR + contraction, inc blood sugar, decreased saliva, dilated bronchi for faster breathing, skin vasoconstriction, constricted arrector pilli, increase sweat, decrease digestion, inc blood pressure and retention

170
Q

How a nerve impulse gets transferred (AFTER NEUROTRANSMITTERS RELEASED): mechanism

A

neurotransmitters diffuse down across synaptic cleft to the post synaptic nerve and interact with the proteins on the surface of the dendrite, these neurotransmitters change the structure of the proteins and cause them to open up and allow NA+ ions to move through via ligand-gated sodium channels

170
Q

what is the sensory input for autonomic nerves?

A

interoceptors ( interal sensing)

171
Q

what is the sensory input for somatic nerves?

A

special senses or somatic senses

171
Q

what is the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for or associated to?

A

rest, relaxation, repletion and the relaxation response.

171
Q

what is the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for or associated to?

A

exercise, emotion and excitement and the alarm response.

172
Q

what controls the output of somatic nerves?

A

cerebral cortex

173
Q

what controls the output of autonomic nerves?

A

limbic system, hypothalamus, brain stem and spinal cord

174
Q

what are the effectors for the somatic nerves?

A

skeletal muscle

175
Q

Raynaud disease

A

sympathetic system always on or constant/excessive sympathetic system stimulation following cold or stress events, resulting in chronic vasoconstriction and ischemia (lack of blood in fingers).

175
Q

what are the effectors for the autonomic nerve system?

A

smooth muscle, glands, cardiac muscle.

176
Q

Sympathetic nervous system uses which neurotransmitters?

A

Acetylcholine in the preganglionic neuron then norepinephrine to the effector apart from sweat glands which use both acetylcholine.

177
Q

What neurotransmitter used in the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

only acetylcholine

178
Q

Which of the nervous systems have a single neuron pathway

A

somatic nervous system

178
Q

why does the autonomic nervous system have a two neuron pathway?

A

allows for information to be divided up in the ganglion before the post ganglionic neuron for information to be sent to multiple organs at once.

179
Q

Endocrine organs and compartments

A

consists of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adrenal glands as hormone secreters. Affects the pineal gland, thymus, thyroid and parathyroid, pancreas, testes and ovary -> skin, heart, liver, kidneys, small intestines.

179
Q

Can you turn on the sympathetic nervous system

A

no the autonomic nervous system divisions are inducible systems, therefore they can be turned up or down but not on or off.

179
Q

endocrine system function

A

endocrine organs secret hormones (signalling molecules)

179
Q

hypothalamus function and regulation system

A

is regulated by the autonomic nervous system, pituitary gland and endocrine system which regulates behaviour patterns, circadian patterns, eating and drinking and body temperature.

179
Q

What is an endocrine hormone cell

A

secretes hormones into bloodstream to travel to distant hormone receptors of distant target cells.

179
Q

What are hormones

A

secreted by endocrine system organs and used to alter the behaviour of other cells.

179
Q

Types of hormone producing cells.

A

endocrine, paracrine and autocrine.

180
Q

What is a paracrine hormone cells

A

secrete hormones to nearby target cells hormone receptors

181
Q

what is an autocrine hormone cell

A

secretes hormones to itself and affect its own behaviour.

181
Q

types of hormones

A

lipid soluble hormone or water soluble hormone

181
Q

importance of hormones being inducible: Cholera

A

Cholera binds to the G protein receptor in the cells (locking it in a constant activated state), the cell becomes in a state where cAMP is constantly produced. The pumps chloride ions into intestines and forcing water out producing chronic diarrhoea.

181
Q

Lipid soluble hormones process of affecting cells

A

is transported through blood with a transport protein, can immediately diffuse through cell lipid bilayer, binds to complexes in the nucleus and activates receptor-hormone complex and alters gene expression by turning a gene on or off -> newly formed mRNA directs synthesis of proteins on ribosomes and creates new proteins to alter cell activity.

182
Q

Water soluble hormones process of altering cell behaviour

A

Free flow in blood, need to bind to receptor on cell which activates G protein and adenyl cyclase, activated adenyl cyclase converts ATP to cAMP. cAMP serves as a second messenger to activate protein kinase. Activated protein kinase phosphorylate other enzymes, these enzymes catalyse reactions that produce physiological responses. Phosphodiesterase inactivates cAMP when required.

183
Q

hypothalamus-pituitary axis structure

A

Hypothalamic nuclei (region in hypothalamus) is connected to the pituitary (anterior and posterior) via the infundibulum. Connecting the two network of capillaries (hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary gland) is the hypophyseal portal veins.

184
Q

the adrenal medulla function

A

important in the sympathetic nervous system as sympathetic pre-ganglionic neurons from the spinal cord innervate the adrenal medulla by acetylcholine neurotransmitter. These synapse with a modified post ganglionic neuron acting as secretory cells. The medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine to enhance/sustain initial burst of alarm response.

184
Q

function of the hypothalamus-pituitary axis

A

way of controlling all the hormones in the body

184
Q

the stress response

A

1) alarm response (immediate burst, sympathetic autonomic activation which is sustained by adrenal medulla activation -> mobilise resources for immediate physical activity via inc glucose and breathing, alertness and activity to ward off danger/flee.
2) reducing tissue damage with cortisol from the adrenal cortex and associated with the hypothalamus and pituitary, slower and longer lasting process.

184
Q

process of hormone secretion via pituitary.

A

hypothalamus secretory cell secrete controlling hormones that will affect pituitary. Axon termini near this capillary network will release inhibitory hormones released from axon termini. These travel a short distance through the portal vein to secondary plexus then to the pituitary target cell (movement via venous communication).

184
Q

Adrenal gland structure

A

consist of outer capsule, cortex and middle medulla.

185
Q

the stress response brief

A

Has two stages, first stage is the alarm response, second is to reduce tissue damage (adrenal cortex).

186
Q

Hormones produced by the adrenal cortex

A

mineralocorticoids (eg. aldosterone) and glucocorticoids (eg. cortisol).

187
Q

mineralocorticoids

A

eg. aldosterone: produced by the adrenal cortex and stimulated by the increase of K+ and angiotensin II in blood. Increases Na+ in water, decrease K+ in blood and increases blood volume and pressure

188
Q

Effects of cortisol and consequences.

A
  • increases protein breakdown so new amino acids are available for protein synthesis
  • gluconeogenesis in liver -> glucose available for ATP production.
  • lipolysis in adipose tissue -> triglyceride and fatty acid availability.
  • altered blood vessel sensitivity to vasoconstriction -> blood pressure increases
  • anti inflammatory to limit tissue damage resulting in slower tissue repair
  • alter immune responsiveness and increased susceptibility to infections
188
Q

glucocorticoids

A

3 stage hormonal system. eg. cortisol: produced in the adrenal cortex stimulated by production of ACTH hormone from the pituitary and CRH from the hypothalamus. Causes resistance to stress controls and dampens inflammation and alter immune responses.

189
Q

cortisol effect on protein breakdown

A

increased protein breakdown to produce more available amino acids for protein synthesis.

190
Q

cortisol effect on immunity

A

alters immune responsiveness therefore may increase susceptibility to infections

191
Q

cortisol effect on tissue and wound healing

A

slower wound and tissue healing due to anti-inflammatory effects.

192
Q

cortisol effect on glucose in the liver

A

gluconeogenesis in the liver so more glucose is available for ATP production

193
Q

cortisol effect on adipose tissue

A

lipolysis of the adipose tissue for triglyceride and fatty acid availability

194
Q

cortisol effect on blood vessel sensitivity to vasoconstriction

A

increased sensitivity to increase blood pressure.

195
Q

resistance response (second stage of the stress response)

A

slower and longer lasting process of the stress response and is controlled by the pituitary, hypothalamus and adrenal cortex. CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone) from the hypothalamus reaches the pituitary and activates ACTH that travels through the blood stream to the adrenal cortex which secretes cortisol. Requires control by negative feedback loops.

196
Q

negative feedback loops to inhibit cortisol production (limit)

A

elevated levels of cortisol inhibits the release of ACTH from the pituitary gland by anterior pituitary cortiocotrophs and inhibits the release of CRH from the hypothalamus by hypothalamic neurosecretory cells.

197
Q

hypothalamic neurosecretory cells

A

inhibits the release of CRH from the hypothalamus to stop excessive production of cortisol.

198
Q

anterior pituitary cortiocotrophs

A

inhibit release of ACTH from the pituitary to stop excessive production of cortisol.

199
Q

Neuro-immune links

A

the neuroendocrine system and immune system often influence eachother in terms of cortisol produced from the neuroendocrine system that affect the immune system. The autonomic nerves and cytokines (immune hormones).

200
Q

Eustress

A

acute, beneficial or helpful in terms of escape/danger. Prepares us to meet certain challenges.

201
Q

Hostility and the heart: habitually hostile people

A

chronic sympathetic NS activation, habitually higher blood pressure, heart working harder, blood flows to capillaries constricted, greater risk of cardiac infarct.

201
Q

distress

A

chronic, and associated with undesirable events and are potentially harmful.

202
Q

Stress cardiomyopathy syndrome

A

6 per year in christchurch (associated with earthquake). 24 cases after earthquake. Symptoms similar to heart attack but not quite.

203
Q

extended alarm response

A

norepinephrine and epinephrine from the adrenal medulla

204
Q

resistance reaction mediated by

A

cortisol from the adrena cortex.

204
Q

ON TASK: resistance response

A

increased glucogenesis, suppression of immune system, reduced inflam, resistant to stress and sensitised vessels to vasoconstriction.

205
Q

Inflammatory mediators released by cells of the immune system (e.g. interleukin 1 (IL1) released by macrophages)

A

can stimulate the production of ACTH adrenocorticotrophic hormone.

206
Q

the cerebellum

A

maintains balance is a direct output to spinal cord, it adjusts and coordinates movement. Organises discrepancy between planned and actual movements.

207
Q

basal ganglia functional vs cerebellum

A

not direct output/input to spinal cord, initiates movement and conveys mood through movement, modifies movement to be smoother and precise.

208
Q

what causes non verbal communication problemd

A

non dominant hemisphere

209
Q

what does the outer ovarian cortex contain

A

ovarian follicles

210
Q

what does the ovarian medulla contain

A

ovarian stroma and steroid producing cells.

210
Q
A
211
Q

what does the inner hilus have

A

the entry and exit point of nerves and blood vessels

211
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uni (6 decks)

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