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MBIO317Z Flashcards

1
Q

Tinbergen’s questions

A

-causation (e.g.hormones) and development (e.g.learning) = proximate, how questions?
-function (e.g.fitness) and evolution (e.g.fossils) = ultimate, why questions?

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2
Q

function

A

the fitness value of a behaviour

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3
Q

fitness

A

relative number of genes contributed to the next generation

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4
Q

natural selection (NS)

A

-differential survival of alternative alleles
-responsible for how animals look (morphology) and how they work (physiology)

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5
Q

drosophila, genes & behaviour

A

-normally mate for 20 minutes
-mating time regulated by mechanoreceptors in the males penis
-add a mutation that produces different amounts of receptors
-fewer: don’t know when to stop mating
-too many: don’t mate for long enough

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6
Q

garter snakes, genes & behaviour

A

-coastal and inland snake populations feed on different prey
-coastal snakes eat slugs, inland snakes refuse them
-some differences seen in lab reared snakes

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7
Q

‘group selection’ : proposed mechanism

A

-works at group level not individual
-groups of unselfish individuals do better than groups of selfish individuals

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8
Q

inclusive fitness

A

number of genes contributed to the next generation

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9
Q

ecology

A

-normal biotic and abiotic factors
-usefullness of many traits is frequency dependant

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10
Q

behavioural ecology

A

-the study of how behavioural traits maximise fitness
-behaviour
-ecology
-evolution

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11
Q

heterotrophs

A

energy and nutrients from consuming other organisms

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12
Q

optimal foragers should;

A

-maximise energy intake
-minimise fluctuations on energy intake
-maximise energy intake during certain periods

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13
Q

sticklebacks

A

-feed them neomysis in lab
-large sticklebacks eat large neomysis
-optimal prey size half the size of the inside of predators mouth

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14
Q

efficient foragers must ‘make decisions’

A
  1. What type of food to eat
  2. Where & how long to search for food
  3. What type of search path to use
  4. How to minimise risk
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15
Q

equation

A model of prey selection

A

-profitability = E ÷ H
where E = energy gained
and H = handling time

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16
Q

prey selection

A

efficient foragers chose they prey that gives the highest ratio of ;
Profit (energy) : Effort (handling time)

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17
Q

Marine iguana

A

-different foraging strategy dependent on body size
-inter-tidal : <1.2 Kg
-small animal cools faster due to smaller surface
area
-not very good swimmers so smaller individuals
use more energy swimming
-sub-tidal : <1.8Kg
-both : 1.2-1.8Kg

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18
Q

what type of search pattern to use

A

-straight line good to cover a lot of ground quickly
-hostile environment
-might miss resources
-pattern with lots of turns may allow well known areas to be exploited better

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19
Q

painted turtles

A

-riverline catchments
-move between different streams over land
-mostly moving in straight line
-when in new river, move more randomly

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20
Q

minimise risks : sand goby

A

-prey on small crustaceans, preyed on by larger fish (cod)
-starved goby foraged more than fed one
-chemical info important, forage less when predator present
-use hinger and predator info together
-hungry animals take more risks

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21
Q

bee waggle dance

A

-transfer information to other members of the group
-location of pollen source
-duration of waggle says how far away source is

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22
Q

sexually selected signals

A

-advertise male quality to females
-selected under preferences of females
-ornaments
-zebra finch ; more orange, more attractive to female

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23
Q

agonistic signals

A

-fighting/conflict
-fiddler crab ; male has large claw, waves it to get someone away from territory
-red deer; roar to say how good the are at fighting

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24
Q

conventional and costly signals : fiddler crab

A

conventional: size, structure
costly: energy required to raise large claw

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25
Q

iridescent colouration in butterflies

A

-genus amorphous
-iridescent blue
-catch sunlight during displays, sends out flashing light
-warning their rivals

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26
Q

aposematic (warning) colouration

A

-poison arrow frogs
-colours memorable
-warning to predators (don’t eat me)
-yellow/black stripes trigger response in vertebrates to not eat them
-hoverfly, a bumblebee batsman mimic

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27
Q

plant to animal communication

A

-insects see in UV light
-plants evolved under this selection pressure
-different look under UV light to attract pollinators

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28
Q

signals

A

“information carriers”
a trait that evolved to transmit information

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29
Q

defining communication 1

A

communication occurs when…
-the behaviour of one animal influences the behaviour of another
-but not by direct action
-by supplying information

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30
Q

brood communication definition

A

-the transmission of information
-not necessarily a signal

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31
Q

visual signal

A

fast, short, can have high to low directionality

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32
Q

acoustic signal

A

medium speed, short, high to low directionality

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33
Q

chemical signal

A

slow, long, high to low directionality

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34
Q

multi-component signal; ladybirds

A

aposematic colouring, taste and smell

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35
Q

multi-component signal; Red Jungle Fowl

A

sexual displays with sound and vision
wattle around head
make a lot of noise

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36
Q

unintended recipients

communication networks

A

unintended recipients might see signal and send one back

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37
Q

eavesdropping in Siamese Fighting Fish

A

-pre-fighting signalling phase
-2 males signalling to each other
-can third male take information from that?
-agonistic signal
-swim up and down and wag tail
-open opercular

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38
Q

Siamese fighting fish experiment

A

-tank with 5 individuals
-separated by dividers that can be moved
-centre individual = eavesdropper
-see others fighting but they can’t see him
-learns to recognise each stimulus fish
-remove opaque barrier separating 2 stimulus fish so they can see each other
-one will win and take territory close to barrier
-other fish cowers away

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39
Q

ritualisation

A

assumes both sender and receiver benefit
behaviour that initially contains some information evolves into a signal

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40
Q

evolution of ritualised behaviour

A
  1. intention movement
  2. displacement activities
    -birds about to fight start grooming as they don’t
    know what to do
  3. autonomic responses
    -cats hair stands on end ; saying back off
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41
Q

sensory exploitation

A

-conflict of interests
-exploitation of existing ‘sensory bias’
-male spiders stimulate prey sensing receptors in females
-lure in angler fish exploits predatory behaviour in prey
-hover-flies exploit birds pre-existing bias of not eating yellow stripey things

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42
Q

sales resistance

A

less likely to be taken in by something everyone could do

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43
Q

deceptive signals

A

-i.e. in mimicry
-if evolved by sensory exploitation, might be deceptive
-limits on how much deception you can get away with
-receivers under constant selection pressure to not be taken in by deception

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44
Q

costly signals

A

-signals are costly to perform/maintain
-only high quality individuals can afford all costs
zebra finch;
-orange colour costly
-more orange beak, shows better quality
-better forager etc

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45
Q

Zahavi’s handicap principle

A

-train in male pea fowl makes it harder to fly, but advertises quality to females
-roaring in male red Der uses energy but advertises fighting ability to competitors
-stotting in Thompsons gazelle ; doesn’t get them further away from predator, but shows athletic ability

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46
Q

anoles lizard

A

sit and wait predators
costly;
-time waiting
-time it takes to capture prey
-reveals itself to predators & prey
-energy to capture prey

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47
Q

optimality approach

A

economics of prey choice;
-eat item in front of you or look for another one
-patch residence time

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48
Q

costs, benefits and optima graph

A

-start with axis, build up layers of complexity as you go
-height of line etc determined by environment
-pink are, benefits exceed costs
-digestive contraints affect linear plateau

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49
Q

costs benefits & optima

A

cost minimisation strategy ; bare minimum to stay in benefit
optimum point at which benefit-cost is maximised; net rate of energy intake
maximise benefits; biggest difference between black & red line

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50
Q

chosing musclces

economic of prey choice

A

-unlimited muscles
-range of different sizes to chose from
-ignored really large and really small
-chose intermediate size
-small muscles very low profitability
-large muscles, too much energy to crack open

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51
Q

brown bears

A

-dont always eat whole fish
-if in abundance, don’t waste time eating nutrient free muscle
-e.g. only eat roe of the females

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52
Q

patch residence time, green turtles

A

has to move from patch of sea grass to the next
how long should they stay at each patch?

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53
Q

patch residence time assumptions

A

-food depletion
-as you eat at patch, becomes les and less of it until it Is no longer viable
-diminishing returns
-to start, loads and loads, but as abundance reduces, harder to find food
-currency = net rate of energy intake

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54
Q

patch residence time solutions

A

-eat one mouthful per patch and then move
-too costly in terms of travel
-eat everything at patch and the move
-problem of diminishing returns

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55
Q

optimal residence time

A

determined by several factors ;
-travel time between patches
-diminishing returns on foraging efficiency with increased resident time

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56
Q

maximising energy gain over time

A

-energy/time
-graphically answer given by curve
-long travel time, long patch residence
-short travel time, short patch residence

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57
Q

MVT

A

=marginal value theorem
applied to numerous behavioural traits;
-duration of mating
-mate guarding
-trade-off between size and number of offspring
-diving patterns in air-breathing mammals

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58
Q

optimality theory criticisms

A

-evolution does not produce perfection
-panglosian paradigm, well adapted not perfect
-other ways to come to solution, not just maths
-foraging is only one thing animal has to do
-dugongs alter foraging behaviour when sharks are around

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59
Q

contest behaviour

A

-members of same species compete for access to resources
-exclude opponent from resource
-agonistic, aggressive, fighting behaviour
-intra-specific

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60
Q

giraffes

A

-long neck evolved as weapons for males to fight over access to females
-akull and vertebrate heavily armoured in makes
-male neck mass increases with age
-giraffes prefer to eat low level shrubbery

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61
Q

behavioural adaptations for aggression

A

-communication ; signals and displays
-fighting
-trials of strength
-injuries
-fatalities

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62
Q

morphological adaptations for aggression

A

-ornaments
-colouration
-weapons
-large body size

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63
Q

male characters

red deer contest

A

-same sex groups until rut in October
-shed antlers after rut and re-grow them
-males agonistic signal = groaning
-compete to win guard of harem of females

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64
Q

structure of red deer contests

A
  1. roaring, rate varies, tiring
  2. parallel walking, allows more accurate description of body size
  3. antler pushing , strength
    -sometimes roaring or parallel walking is enough to settle a fight
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65
Q

how do red deer contests end

A

-2/3 start with roaring
-majority fights start with roaring, most go on to parallel walk and ~30% fight
-communication important

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66
Q

fighting signals

what information do they contain?

A

-telling opponent how much you want to win
-advertise ability, not duration
-saying how long you can fight is a bad idea as tells opponent how long they need to last
-try to persuade rival to give up

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67
Q

badges of status

A

in groups, dominants often have morphological badges that indicate status
not costly to produce

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68
Q

Harris’ sparrow

A

-making black feathers is costly
-painted subordinate individuals to make them look dominant
-wouldnt work as eventually have to back up signal

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69
Q

escalation in siamese fighting fish

A

a) lateral orientation
b) tail-beating
c) frontal orientation
d) biting
e) mouth wrestling
f) chasing

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70
Q

signals aren’t always enough

A

-fighting more prolonged and dangerous the contestants are closely matched
-cant assess opponent and make decisions based on signals alone

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71
Q

mule deer

A

don’t live as long as red deer so if don’t breed in one season, might not get chance

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72
Q

narwhals

A

tusk is canine tooth that keeps growing and pierces top lip
-only present in male

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73
Q

elephant seal

A

-proportion of fights will keep going until one dies
-so wether individual would rather die than back down?
if lose fight, don’t get to reproduce

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74
Q

serious fights

A

in contests defined by communication or wrestling, the key factor is assessment
-serious fights with injuries are rare and only occur when rewards are greater than costs

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75
Q

statistics

fatal fighting

A

-10% of male mule deer are injured in fights each year
-60%+ male narwhals have injuries from fights at one point in their life
-5-10% male musk ox die in head to head collisions

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76
Q

fatal fighting in polymorphic fig wasps

A

-all eggs hatch inside figs
-2 male morphs, wingless fighters and winged dispersers
-wingless males large mandibles to decapitate rivals: 77% dead
-remaining males will mate with females in fig

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77
Q

chance of winning

relative RHP

A

in any given fight, absolute RHP is not going to determine whether you win
-actual chance of winning varies between contests
-depends on ability relative to opponent

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78
Q

ownership

A

-male lions compete aggressively for oestrus females
-but among pride males ‘ownership’ is respected
-if equal in size and age, males already with an oestrus female will not be challenged
-following take over, chance of reproductive success is very low : 1/3000

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79
Q

resident advantage

A
  1. residents are better fighters
  2. residents have more to lose so fight harder when challenged
  3. the winner is decided arbitrarily e.g. mechanical advantage
    - experiments with greta tits support 2
    - experiments with fiddler crabs support 3
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80
Q

sexual selection and contest

A

many male sexually selected traits are characters that enhance an individuals ability in male-male competition;
a. large body size
b. elaborate plumage
c. complex song
- not all fights over access to mates

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81
Q

frequency dependence

A

benefit of a strategy depends on opponent strategy

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82
Q

strategies

A

-contestants chose from defined set of strategies
-overall ‘plan of action’
-deer fights, strategy is to roar, parallel walk then antler wrestle
-different from tactics

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83
Q

tactic

A

how to implement game plan in contest

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84
Q

evolutionary games theory

A

-what should natural selection chose over evolutionary time
-ESS

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85
Q

steps to analysing fighting games

A
  1. specify the alternative strategy
  2. specify the average pay-off for each alternative
  3. find the expected solution
    -> ESS
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86
Q

the hawk dove game ; the strategy

A

-1975
-not actual hawks and doves
-doves; always display but never fight
-hawks; only withdraw when injured, always fight
-dove v dove, always use displays

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87
Q

hawk dove game: pay-off

A
  • E= pay-off (varies according to what opponent does
  • V = (+), value of resource
  • C = (-), cost on injury (injury will reduce fitness)
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88
Q

hawk-dove game : E

A

-H v H = 50% chance of winning, but 50% risk of injury
-H v D = H always wins
-D v H = no injury, no win
-D v D = no injury, 50% chance of winning

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89
Q

H D games

‘pay-off matrix’

A

-H v H = 1/2 (V+C)
-H v D = V
-D v H = 0
-D v D = 1/2(V)

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90
Q

hawk dove game ; solution

A

-the ESS
when adopted by all members, population cannot be invade by mutant alternative
all individuals playing hawk, mutant dove would not do well

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91
Q

ancestral population of doves

A

-average pay-off = 25
-hawk mutation would invade because h v d= 50
-dove is not ess

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92
Q

ancestral population of hawks

A

-average pay-off = 12.5
-dove mutation cannot invade because when d meets h, pay-off = 0
-hawk = ESS when V>C

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93
Q

C>V: mixed ESS

A

-proportion of individuals play hawk, the rest play dove
-(or) all individuals play hawk sometimes, dove the rest of the time
-ratio depends on difference between V and C

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94
Q

ESS is not the optimal strategy

A

-at ESS average pay-off to hawks and doves is 12.5/contest
-optimal strategy would be all doves
-but, not ESS as can be invaded by hawks

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95
Q

H - D fight asymmetries

A

-hawk-dove game assumes symmetric contests
-opponents place same value of resource
-opponents equal RHP
-but, not usually the case
-there is differences in fighting ability between opponents

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96
Q

RHP

A

Resource Holding Potential

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97
Q

assessor strategy

A

assess opponents RHP
play hawk if stronger, dove if weaker

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98
Q

how often assesor wins

assessor winning ability

A

-assessor strategy, chose to play hawk or dove dependant on strength
-A= assessor
-assessors win 3/4 of resources all together
-assessors can invade populations of both doves and hawks
-pure ESS of assessor strategy

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99
Q

E(A,A) = 1/2V

A

-E= pay-off
when an assessor meets an assessor they have a 50% chance of winning and no chance of injury

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100
Q

E(H,A) = 1/2(V+C)

A

hawk will always fight and the assessor will fight or run away
so hawks have 50% chance of winning and 50% chance of injury

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101
Q

E(D,A) = 1/4 V

A

-half the time, dove has better RHP
-both play dove, dove wins half of these

-half the time, dove has lower RHP
-assessor plays hawk, dove always loses but receives no injury
-overall dove wins 1/2 contests when stronger, none when weaker

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102
Q

E(A,H) = 1/2V

A

-assessor will have higher RHP half the time, and win those fights
when lower RHP, assessor plays dove and loses without injury

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103
Q

E(A,D) = 3/4V

A

-half the time, assessor has better RHP
-assessor wins all of these playing hawk

-half the time, assessor has lower RHP
-wins half of these playing dove
-assessor wins half contests when weaker, all when stronger

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104
Q

H-D-A games ‘pure ESS’

A

-in a population of assessors the average pay-off is 25
-assessor is stable against invasion of doves and hawks
-playing assessor all the time is the ESS

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105
Q

Hawk-dove-bourgeois game

A

bourgeois strategy is to respect ownership
similar results to H-D-A
bourgeois is the ESS when C>V

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106
Q

real hawks and doves

A

an over simplification
assumes displays are free
makes some predictions that are upheld by observation of nature

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107
Q

anisogamy

A

-different sized gametes
-used to define ‘male’ and ‘female’
-‘macrogametic’ : female egg, seeds etc
-large, expensive, fewer in number
-‘microgametic’ : male, small, cheap, millions produced

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108
Q

Batemans principle

A

1948
-consequences if disparity in gamete size
-darwinian ideas in context of genetics

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109
Q

egg limited

drosophila mating

A

-in tubes
-isolated male = 0 offspring
-male + 1 female = 30 to 40 offspring
-male + 2 females = double
-male + 3 females = triple (double again)
-female mating with multiple males sees no difference in offspring produced
-egg limited

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110
Q

male tactics

A

mate with as many females as possible to fertilise maximum number of ova
sperm is cheap and seldom a limiting factor in reproduction, so males often less choosy with mates

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111
Q

sexual dimorphism in primates

A

-differences in size between males and females
-Lemurs, Indri etc
-1 male per female, relatively same size as each other
-baboons etc
-2-3 females per male, so strong selection for bigger size in male
-higher number of potential mates, higher selection for sexual dimorphism

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112
Q

elephant seals chance of mating

A

-highly skewed distribution of males fitness due to competition
-highest ranked seal produces a lot of offspring
-2nd ranked, not even a fraction
-some never get to mate, as when rank goes down, so does mating success

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113
Q

male tactics: when to be choosy

A

-if they have high parental investment
-female quality important for rearing offspring
-pair bonds constrain number of mates and EPCs per male

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114
Q

precedence etc

types of sperm competition

A

-sperm precedence
-benefit of being first or last
-typically first in mammals
-raffle
-more sperm, more likely to fertilise
-displacement
-remove sperm of other individuals

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115
Q

sperm removal example dunnock

A

male dunnoqcks peck females cloaca to stimulate ejection of sperm

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116
Q

sperm competition in damselflies

A

-females mate with several and actively promote male-male competition
-males have sperm scoops on their penis
-removes over 90% previous males sperm before releasing own gametes
-last male fertilises most eggs

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117
Q

mate guarding white fronted beeeaters

A

-males increase frequency of mating with partner prior to egg laying ; sperm competition
-males spend more time near partner prior to egg laying ; reduces EPCs ten-fold
-after egg-laying, males pursue EPCs; females too busy incubating

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118
Q

nuptial gifts

A

-‘gifts to the bride’
-used to attract mates and convince them to copulate -honest signals, need to be costly
-low quality males can’t do it
-females katydids often eat the spermatophore
-healthy females incorporate protein into eggs, weak ones use it to increase health

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119
Q

spiders

the ultimate nuptial gift

A

-redback male spiders jump into females mouth to induce feeding
-well fed females less likely to re-mate
-male soma increases size of egg mass
-soma=body
-finding another female is difficult to low population density
-so males have nothing to lose

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120
Q

female tactics

A

-eggs costly and in limited supply
-females should be choosy and only mate with high quality males
-female reproductive success is limited by quality of offspring
-sometimes by parental care
-hoping high quality male will produce high quality offspring

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121
Q

criteria of females choice

A

-large body size, bright colouration, elaborate ornaments
-signals of male quality
-female peacocks that mate with better males lay more eggs, larger eggs and have offspring with higher growth rates

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122
Q

widow birds

A

-males have long tails
-females prefer males with longer tails
-elongated tails, double to reproductive success

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123
Q

gametes

problems for Bateman

A

-males can be sperm limited
-can’t explain everything
-female ECP
-monogamy
-polyandry
-male mate choice
-sex role reversal
-anisogamy not reason for everything

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124
Q

epc

female collard lizard

A

-females have higher hatching success if they mate with multiple males
-higher fitness

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125
Q

why should females seek ECPs

A

-fertility insurance
-acquisition of nutrients
-parental care
-avoidance of harassment
-change of partner
-genetic diversity
-good genes
-sexy sons
-avoid male harassment
-check out available talent

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126
Q

monogamy

A

stable social pair bond between one male and one female

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127
Q

polygyny

A

‘many wives/husbands’
stable social systems with ‘pair’ bonds between multiple individuals

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128
Q

monogamous systems

A

-male/female together for period of time
-can go off to other individuals, but come back together
-sometimes pays partners to mate monogamously
-pair bonds correlate with reproductive success
-longer together more reproductive success

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129
Q

female distribution theory

A

potential for polygyny depends on female distribution -dispersed females cannot be defended

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130
Q

female defence polygyny

A

-male defends group of females
-male size very important
-selected for large body size to aid in defence
-common mating system in males e.g. gorillas, red deer etc
-in coriphidae, males much larger than females so that they can carry them around

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131
Q

male behaviours

coriphidae

A

-siphohoecetive amphipods
-live in cases made of sand and shell fragments
-males collect females and glue their shells to their own

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132
Q

nesting

montoezyma oropendolas

A

-nest colonially
-anti-predator strategy
-domiant males defend colony excluding all other males
-gets 80% of copulations
-dominant male shifts if females move the colony

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133
Q

resource defence polygyny

A

-Males defend clumped resource that attracts several females
-food, territories, breeding sites etc
-polygyny in birds typically due to resource defence polygyny
-can defend any females in its territory

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134
Q

shells

cichlid

A

-małe cichlid collects snail shells
-tiny females lay eggs in shells
-males huge; 12 times larger than females
-male size correlated with reproductive success
-large males have up to 100 shells and 30 females
-sexual dimorphism

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135
Q

benefits and skews in sex ratio

polygyny and female choice

A

-benefit of polygyny differs between sexes
-some males benefit greatly, but not all
-look at skew in male mating success
-females have little to gain and may lose resources or parental care
-unmated males difficult to lose

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136
Q

male care, resource abundance

no cost to polygyny

A

if males provide no parental care there may be no sexual-conflict over polygyny
cost of polygyny to females may be zero if resources are super abundant

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137
Q

what are others doing

polygyny threshold model

A

best possible strategy depends on what others are doing
when resources are limited females should mate monogamously on high quality territories

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138
Q

mating options for females wiith restricted mates

limited resources ; remaining options

A

1) mate polygynously on high quality territories
-females accept polygyny because benefit more from being polygynous on high quality territory than monogamous on low quality
2) mate monogamously on poor territory

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139
Q

payment?

problems with PTM

A

-ideal free assumptions invalid in some cases
-if ideal, at equilibrium all individuals should have the same pay-off
-not free
-resident female doesn’t want additional females as they will have reduced fitness

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140
Q

sexy son hypothesis

A

-good genes argument
-provide high offspring survival
-females can still benefit from polygyny
-mate with high quality male with hope son will have some characteristics
-sons with greater ability to be polygynous
-little evidence, low heritability

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141
Q

deception

A

female may not know male is already mated
but once she has laid clutch and male has deserted, its too late to remate
polygyny is the best of the bad job

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142
Q

deception hypothesis

pied flycatchers

A

females support deception hypothesis
males sneak off to mate with other female, then goes back to primary female
secondary female has to rear alone

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143
Q

many males

social polyandry

A

-polygyny more common due to anisogamy
-not just mating with many males, but socially bonding with them
-male, some chance of being father of offspring
-sex ratio normally 50/50

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144
Q

electus parrots

A

-up to 7 males form stable pair bond with one female and help raise 1 or 2 offspring
-typically one male father of chicks in one year
-operational sex ratio skewed by female mortality and scarcity of next holes

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145
Q

males in female role

sex-role reversal polyandry

A

-males provide all parental care
-males are choosy
-females are larger and have elaborate secondary sexual characteristics
-females have higher fitness than males

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146
Q

sex reversal

sequential polyandry; spotted sandpipers

A

-females arrive on breeding grounds before males and fight for territories
-small males incubate clutch while female defends territory and courts second male

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147
Q

sperm competition

why do males accept polyandry

A

-low cost to parental care
-male bias in sex ratio
-first male paternity in 2nd brood
-females store sperm
-secondary male might father offspring that aren’t his -polyandry is best of a bad job for 2nd male

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148
Q

coutship calls

tungara frogs

A

variable courtship call
if lots of competition, male can scale up call to make it more attractive with ‘chucks’
but, more attractive call makes male more vulnerable
bat more early localise frog when it gives whine and chuck

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149
Q

predation environments

guppies in trinidad

A

-guppies live in streams that differ in predators they have to contend with
-some stream sections are high predator environments (HP) other low predation (LP)

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150
Q

predation effects guppies

A

predation affects appearance and behaviour
HP males smaller and more drab than LP
HP males invest less in courtship
HP guppies shoal more

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151
Q

experience

innate recognition

A

-learning requires experience, but experience can be fatal
-‘know your enemy’
-visual cues in birds and fish
-chemical cues in fish and amphibians
-auditory cues in brush turkeys

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152
Q

crickets warning eggs

maternal effects

A

-female field crickets exposed to the predators cues warn eggs before laying
-when offspring tested, exposed offspring were more wary than controls
-survivorship greater in exposed group

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153
Q

learning

cues

A

-learn socially by learning others responses to visual or chemical cues
-relies on classical conditioning - response to conspecific alarm is hardwired
-chemical cues often used - allows long range learning

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154
Q

risk averse behaviours

balance response to risk

A

-risk averse behaviour can be costly, so can risk prone behaviour
-need to identify and respond
-don’t run, not a predator = true negative
-run, not predator = false positive
- don’t run, predator = false negative
- run, predator = true positive

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155
Q

predator inspection

A

approach a threatening organism in their habitat and gather information about;
~ level of satiety
~its prey preference
prey animal can assess level of risk

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156
Q

(and examples)

crypsis

A

-camouflage
-match background, not just visual can be auditory
-moths fuzzy to protect against echolocation
-only works effectively if animals move at the same speed as background
-stick insect, blow on it and it will sway like breeze to blend in with environment

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157
Q

masquerade

A

camouflage without crypts
looks like something you don’t eat to eat
resembling inedible object

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158
Q

refugia

A

-coexisting
-going to part of habitat predator can’t follow
-clownfish: anemones
-shrimp cleaning goby’s home
-frilled lizard, eye spots

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159
Q

non-visual (auditory)

dietetic displays

A

-can be non-visual e.g. auditory
-some animals produce distress calls, but these are not recruitment calls
-peacock butterflies produce hissing sounds and high-intensity ultrasonic clicks and cause predatory rodents to flee

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160
Q

chemical defences

A

deterent used by small, delicious animals
not many mammals, but skunks impressive
some smells make animals easier to find

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161
Q

aposematism

A

signalling poisonousness
widespread - nudibranchs, sea snakes, caterpillars and many others
important to be conspicuous

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162
Q

mullein mimicry

A

two or more unpalatable species converge to look similar, gain great benefit

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163
Q

batesian mimicry

A

edible or palatable species resemble an inedible species. success is frequency dependant

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164
Q

rapid locomotion

A

-prey animals adopted to move fast
-lepidopterans ; fast flying species more likely to survive attack
-trade-off; fast flying insects may have to devote up to half of body mass for flight muscle

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165
Q

lizard+insect

misdirect predators attack

A

lizard: sheds tail, tail wriggles to misdirect predator
insects: false heads, 180º after landing to confuse birds

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166
Q

what do they release?

sea hares

A

-when attacked, release 2 chemicals
1. a purple ink
2. sticky substance called opaline
-ink contains amino acids and is highly attractive
-opaline deactivates chemical senses of the attacker

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167
Q

dead

thanatosis

A

-be less appealing, play dead
-many species engage in this including; lizards, moulting spiders etc
-virginia opossum backs up its signal
*heart rate drops, body goes floppy, starts drooling and urinates

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168
Q

ambush

A

-stealth, crypisis and limited movement
-not just visual crypts, also scent
*dog rolling in faeces
-assassin bugs
*disguised visually and chemically
*use prey debris and plant resin

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169
Q

spiderwebs

trap builders

A

-ant lions dig pits
-spider webs; use glue & electric charge
*web has negative charge
*insects (flying) pick up positive charge
~stick to web

170
Q

tentacled snakes

A

-use feint attacks to manipulate escape responses of fish prey
-gets into position and initiates fake attack with middle of their body
-fish elicits escape response in wrong direction - directly into snakes mouth

171
Q

pursuit

A

-relies on speed and endurance
-sometimes referred to as persistence hunting
-effective, but aerobic muscle is not good for hunting
-wild dogs have higher capture rate, but often lose prey to larger carnivores
-chase in high heats until predator passes out

172
Q

predator adaptations specifics

A

-orcas different colours/patterns/types dependant on prey type
-great tits eat parts of sleeping bats
-grasshopper mice howl to attract prey, then jump on back of spraying beetle to prevent being sprayed

173
Q

mantis shrimp

A

-punch through shells
-heavily modified 2nd leg

174
Q

birds+mammals+fish

patterns of parental care and mating systems

A

birds: typically male and female parental care with majority being monogamous
mammals: female parental care and typical polygynous mating
fish: male parental care, polygynous, polyandrous, polygynandrous

175
Q

dunnock mating systems

A

variable mating system
monogamy: biparental care
polygyny: male helps 2 females in proportion to mating
polyandry: 2 males care at 1 nest, in proportion to mating

176
Q

parental care - mammals

A

polygyny common
female uniparental care in 95% species
*prolonged gestation, mammary glands
males could protect and feed females
*but they spend most time mating with additional females

177
Q

parental care - fish

A

most show no parental care
male care common with external fetilisation
female care common with internal fertilisation

178
Q

sexual conflict and parental care

A

*in many cases, benefits either parent to desert
*4 possible outcomes;
-no parental care
-female only care
-male only care
-biparental care

179
Q

how fertilisation happens

certainty of paternity hypothesis

A

-with internal fertilisation, male is unsure of paternity
*less willing to invest parental care
-with external fertilisation, male more confidence in paternity
*but cuckoldry is still possible

180
Q

paternity rrelated ??

bluegill sunfish

A

males perform less egg defence if another male was present when eggs were fertilised

181
Q

in terms of parental care

association hypothesis

A

-association with eggs or young pre-adapt parent to provide parental care
*to an extent parental care is an exaptation
-males are associated with externally fertilised eggs layed in their territory
*defend eggs and young while defending territory
-females are associated with young when there is internal fertilisation

182
Q

ESS parental options

A

Po = probability of egg survival with no care
P1= probability of egg survival with 1 parent
P2 = probability of egg survival with 2 parents

P2> P1> Po

183
Q

ESS other ratios

A

p = chance for a deserting male of mating again
W = number of eggs of female deserter
w = number eggs for care giving female

W>w

184
Q

female and male dessert if:

A

WP>wP1 (or female will care)
Po (1+p) > P1 (or male will care)

185
Q

parental desertion favoured if:

A

W»w
p is large
P0 ≈ P1

186
Q

female cares and male deserts if

A

wP1 > Who (or female will desert)
P1 (1+P) > P2 (or male will care)

187
Q

female only care favoured if:

A

p is large
W≈w
P1» Po and P2≈P1

188
Q

female deserts and males care if:

A

WP1 > wP2 (or female will care)
P1>Po (1+p) (or male will dessert)

189
Q

male only care if:

A

W»w
p is small
P1»Po and P2 ≈ P1

190
Q

female and male care if:

A

wP2>WP1 (or female will desert)
P2>P1 (1+P) (or male will desert)

191
Q

biparental care if:

A

P2»P1
p is small

192
Q

brood parasite - host coevolution

A

-evolutionary arms race
-brood parasites evolve adaptations to maximise success e.g. egg mimicry
-hosts evolve tactics to avoid parasitism e.g. egg recognition, aggression towards parasites

193
Q

intra-specific brood parasitism

A

-same species acts as host
-over 200 species of birds
-brood parasitism in coots
*females which lack territories parasite territory
holders
*territorial females prioritise neighbours nests

194
Q

common cuckoo

A

-inter-specific brood parasite: other species acts as host
-lay eggs in nests of over 100 other species
-only 11 hosts frequently parasitise
-hosts smaller than cuckoo
-females lay mimetic eggs
-individual females are host specialists

195
Q

what do they do?

European cuckoo

A

-female cuckoos stake out host nests
-wait until host clutch initiated
-wait near nest before laying
-removes one host egg and lays one egg
-at nest for only 10 seconds

196
Q

how are they detected?

European cuckoo tactics

A

-laying tactics prevent detection
-josts aggressive to adult cuckoo near nest
-rejection of cuckoo egg more likely if female cuckoo detected
-reed warblers use social information (alarm calls of neighbours) to detect female cuckoos

197
Q

young cuckoo

European cuckoo adaptations

A

adaptations of cuckoo eggs and young;
* shorter incubation times, usually hatch before host eggs
* young cuckoo ejects all other eggs and hatchlings from the nest
* begging calls of cuckoo mimic entire host brood

198
Q

egg mimicry

A

cuckoo eggs usually slightly larger than host, but much smaller than would be expected given the size of the cuckoo

199
Q

discrimination

cuckoo - host coevolution

A

-most hosts show discrimination of eggs
-degree of mimicry is related to host species’ ability to discriminate
* less discriminate hosts –> lower similarity of parasitic and hosts eggs
* dunnock-cuckoo lays non-mimetic eggs and dunnoqcks don’t reject

200
Q

why accept parasitic eggs?

A

-acceptance behaviour may be due to costs of rejection
* accidental damage and ejection
–e.g. reed warblers occasionally throw out or
damage their own eggs
* learning involved in egg recognition

201
Q

imprinting on eggs

A

-naive hosts must imprint on their own eggs to distinguish and reject foreign eggs
-experienced birds have a recognition template for their own eggs
* can’t reject parasitic egg without seeing their own eggs

202
Q

obligate siblicide

A

-siblicide always occurs e.g Black eagles
-2 egg clutches
-highly asynchronous hatching
-death of junior chick usually 1-2 days after hatching

203
Q

facultative siblicide

A

-siblicide sometimes occurs
-galapagos fur seals
*up to 23% females give birth whilst still feeding an older pup
* youngest pup may starve or be killed by older sibling during unfavourable environmental conditions
- also found in egrets, herons, owls, kittiwakes etc

204
Q

non-lethal sibling aggression requirements

A

-resources which are limited and monopolizable
-asymmetry in offspring
-non-lethal, but still violent. can lead to death of smallest offspring

205
Q

piglet non-lethal aggression

A

-fight for access to treats
-precocial development of canine teeth
-establish hierarchy within hours of birth

206
Q

P-O conflict

scramble competition

A

-young compete for position close to parent
-position in nest is an important determinant of who gets fed
-offspring size important determinant of ability to monopolise primary location

207
Q

begging

A

offspring use vocal and visual displays to compete for food
– resources allocated to chicks that beg at the highest intensity

208
Q

non-aggressive brood reduction

A

-hatching asynchrony leads to size hierarchies in the brood
-asymetries in food allocation
* differences in growth rate & fledgling weight
* mortality of youngest/smallest offspring

209
Q

p-o conflict parents perspective

A

offspring alpha and beta are equally related to the parent (r=0.5) and therefore have equal value

210
Q

p-o conflict offspring alpha perspective

A

values itself (r=1) twice as much as it values sibling or parent (r=0.5)

211
Q

Hamiltons rule

A

-alturism favoured when r B>C
-conflict among kin will arise when demand outstrips supply

212
Q

p-o conflict numerical example

A

-mother with 2 dependant young
-mother has 2 indivisible prey items
-eating 1 prey item would increase other offsprings fitness by 4 units
-eating 2 prey items wild increase either offsprings fitness by 7 units
-parental optimum is to share food equally between alpha and beta

213
Q

optimistic clutch sizes

resource tracking hypothesis

A

-parents lay optimistic clutch size to capitalise on unpredictably favourable environmental conditions
-in bad years, brood size must be reduced
-hatching asynchrony facilitates brood reduction

214
Q

replacement offspring hypothesis

A

-core set of offspring which parents can support and marginal offspring which are expendable
-marginal offspring are a form of insurance incase of egg infertility, mortality etc
-explains obligate siblicide in Nazca Booby

215
Q

parental favouritism

A

-baby American coots have orange-tipped feathers on their backs and throats
-orange-tipped chicks fed preferentially
* higher growth rates and survival
* parents use feather colour as a signal

216
Q

sex ratio

A

-proportion of individuals that are male
-equal males and females seen in many taxa (0.5)

number of males ÷ number of males + number of females

217
Q

why 0.5?

A

-half genes from each sex
-if less of one sex, they will contribute more offspring per capita
-individuals investing in the rare sex will be fitter
-if investing in rare sex is hereditary, alleles for rare offspring will increase in frequency
-eventually ratio will be 0.5 and offspring of both sexes will be equally beneficial

218
Q

fishers theory of equal investment

A

-think of theory as a pendulum
-behaving in particular way dependant on how many individuals are also behaving that way
-male biased: fitness of female>male
* selection favours parents who produce females
-female biased: fitness male >female
*selection favours parent that produces males

219
Q

sex ratio in humans

A

-1.05 male: 1 female
-unbalance, slightly in favour of males
-males cheaper to make
* less base pairs, one X, one Y
* males more reckless; higher mortality
-overall investment in each sex is equal

220
Q

assumptions of equal investment

A

-males and females contribute equally to the gene-pool
-panmaxis: random mating
-equal investment returns (benefit/cost) from offspring of each sex
-theory of equal investment is a non-fisherman model

221
Q

non-fisherman sex ratios

A

-get the same back from male and female offspring (equal investment returns)
-if fisher correct, deviation from returns should lead to deviation from 0.5 in investment
-if males and females cost the same, this is equivalent to deviation from 0.5 in sex ratio

222
Q

local mate competition (LMC)

A

-if males don’t disperse far, brothers will have to compete for access to females
-‘unsuccessful’ sons are a waste
-when sons compete, average value to mother is reduced
-> mother should favour daughters

223
Q

theory of LMC acariform mite

A

-complete isolation of brood, all reproduction occurs inside the mother
-inbreeding, sons fertilise their sisters
-viviparous: live young
-sons die, only females produced

224
Q

LMC parasitoid wasps

A

-degree of sex ratio determined by strength of LMC
-females lay eggs in fly pupae, multiple broods can be laid in one pupae
-degree of isolation depends on how many broods played in one host
* more broods, closer sex ratio gets to 0.5

225
Q

LMC parasitoid wasps : clutch sizes

A

-only mated females disperse, sons compete to fertilise sisters
-small clutches, male biased
-large clutches, female biased
-number of mothers in pupae increases, clutches get smaller

226
Q

number of females, number of mothers?

strength of LMC

A

-variable
-more than 1 female can lay eggs in host
-increasing mothers, strength of LMC declines
-female bias in sex ratio should diminish with increasing number of mothers
-successive mothers produce increasing number of males

227
Q

ephemeral

A

don’t stay in same place after mating occurs (or, short-lived)

228
Q

LMC assumes

A
  1. offspring mature in discrete ephemeral groups
  2. mating only within these groups
  3. only mated females disperse
229
Q

Local resource competition (LCR)

A

-resources other than mates e.g. food, shelter
*females compete for access to this
-non-dispersing females subject to LCR
-limited number of females can survive, so no point producing excess females

230
Q

LCR example

A

-females compete for food in Galago crassicaudatus
-thick tailed bushbaby : male biased sex ratio due to LCR

231
Q

maternal condition

A

-fitness of one sec affected by unit of investment
-good maternal condition = more milk
- more milk = bigger offspring
-big males wins more fights
-so male size more beneficial for survival
fitness of males tied to maternal condition more than fitness of females

232
Q

maternal condition: female quality

A

-males not fussy about who they mate with
-so poor condition females produce more females, because males don’t care what they look like
-subordinate females also produce more females

233
Q

host quality

A

-bigger host = more food and therefore bigger offspring
- in parasites females disperse, big females disperse further
-fitness of females tied to host quality more than fitness of males

234
Q

host quality: females and mothers

A

-manipulate quality of host?
-mothers can tell condition of host and adjust sex ratio in response to environment

235
Q

sex roles

A

the strategies for mate choice and competition over access to mates that males and females adopt

236
Q

sex role reversal definition

A

reversal in the usual mate choice and competitive strategies for access to mates adopted by males and females

237
Q

sex role reversal can occur if:

A

reproductive success of females is limited by the rate at which they can access males/male gametes

238
Q

sex role reversal possible when:

A
  1. males invest heavily in parental care
  2. sex ratio skewed in favour of females
  3. there is sperm competition
239
Q

1) males invest heavily in parental care

A

-costs of reproduction normally higher in females
* gamete production has a greater cost
-total cost of reproduction = gamete production + parental care

240
Q

Jacanas

A

-partial sex role reversal
-high rates of egg predation
-females compensate by laying multiple clutches by mating with multiple males
-males incubate
-females hold territories and compete for males

241
Q

parental care definition

A

any investment by the parent in an individual offspring that increases the offsprings chance of surviving at the cost of the parents ability to invest in other offspring

242
Q

pipe fish

A

-brood pouch in male
-male carries out pregnancy
-male pregnancy is not sex role reversal, it is a cause of it
-males choosy, prefer females with larger skin fold
-females display and are larger

243
Q

fecundity

A

ability to produce an abundance of offspring or new growth: fertility

244
Q

female ornaments and fecundity

A

pipe fish, positive relationship between amount of blue colouration and number of eggs produced by females

245
Q

complete sex role reversal in pipe fish

A

-choosy males, assess female ornaments
-competitive females, inhibition of female ornament development
-polyandry to greatest extent in any animal taxon

246
Q

Jacanas male paternity costs

A

-males provide all parental care
-can lose eggs to crocs
-females store sperm
-no guarantee of clutch paternity
-males waste time and energy incubating other males offspring
* up to 70% in highly polyandrous

247
Q

skewed sex ratio in favour of females

A

-expected operational sex ratio is 1:1 (=0.5)
-if sex ratio is skewed
*limit on rate most abundant sex can access mates
*could be greater than constraints due to costs of parenthood
*in female biased populations, could lead to sex-role reversal

248
Q

disproportionally high male mortality due to;

A
  1. intra-sexual selection
  2. increased risk of predation
  3. sex-ratio distorters
249
Q

sex ratio distorter

A

selfish genes transfered exclusively via one sex and fatal to the other sex

250
Q

wolbachia bacterium

A

-present in Acrea encedon (butterfly)
infects 80% of females, kills all male embryos
population up to 95% female

251
Q

do females compete?

A

-male lekking swarms common in insects
-In female biased populations, females form swarms
-mated females more likely to leave swarm than virgins
-female lekking swarms = female competition

252
Q
  1. sperm limitation
A

-female fertilisation success constrained by supply of sperm
-female reproductive success is limited by rate of access to male gametes

253
Q

spermatophores

A

-size increases with male body size
-repeated copulations deplete the supply
-size/number matches female quality
-control over how much sperm you give to the female
-present in crustaceans

254
Q

sperm limitation in spiny lobsters

A

-spermatophore provided by male increases with size of female mate
-clutch size increases with spermatophore size
-large females Mae earlier in breeding season

255
Q

limiting sex

A

-supplies gametes/mating opportunities at a low rate
-reproductive success determined by quality of mates
-choosy– sexual selection is weak
-usulay females; male in sex-role reversed system

256
Q

limited sex

A

-supplies gametes/mating opportunities at a higher rate
-reproductive success determined by rate of accessing mates
-competetive– sexual selection is strong
-usulay males; females in sex role reversed sysystem

257
Q

male fitness

A

depends on number of mates and is maximised through promiscuity

258
Q

females fitness

A

depends on quality of mates and is maximised through choosiness

259
Q

sexual conflict over

A

1) mate guarding by males
2) copulation attempts by unfavored males
3) duration of copulation
4) parental care duties
5) damage to females during fights between males
6) damage to females during mating
7) survival of previous young
8) survival of the male

260
Q

fight

A

two individuals adopting different roles; owner of resource and intruder
-conflict normally driven by anisogamy

261
Q

anisogamy: basis of sexual conflict

A

in terms of reproduction, behaviour is not cooperative - there is conflict
individuals have evolved to only think of maximising their own fitness

262
Q

amplexus

A

mate guarding in amphibians
mating embrace, male positions on back of females and grasps tightly with front legs

263
Q

1) mate guarding by males

A

-males only have to subdue females in order to mate
-males maximise fitness by preventing other males from accessing female gametes
-male ownership removes female choice of mate
-females should resist

264
Q

water striders

A

-post copulatory mate guarding
-songle female slightly larger than the male
-male stays on top of female after gamete transfer preventing another copulation
-can last a few minutes to several weeks
-in this species, there is always a male ‘riding’ the female

265
Q

female water striders

A

-mating is expensive for females
-carrying male elevates metabolic rate
*live male cheaper than dead male
-struggling is also expensive
*more so than carrying male
*leads to 200% increase in metabolic rate
*sustained for 16s before needing rest

266
Q

water striders grab rates

A

-on average, single females subjected to 20 grab attempts per hour
-energetic cost of struggling increases with grab attempts per hour
-female decision should depend on guarding and duration of struggle

267
Q

crustaceans

A

-pre-copulatory mate guarding
-females can only mate after moulting
-males guard females during pre-moult phase to ensure access to copulation
-mates have capacity to tell when females about to moult
* chemical released
-males fight over ownership of guarded females

268
Q

costs and benefits male T. thermophilium

A

-costs
*energy for locomotion
*increased risk of predation
*restricted access to food
-benefits
*access to mates

269
Q

costs and benefits females T. thermophillium

A

-costs
*restricted choice of mates
*increased risk of predation
*restricted access to food
-benefits
*none? would get to mate anyway
*males that resist shaking might be high quality

270
Q

are pre-copular pairs in sexual conflict?

A

-driven by male-male competition over females
-large males guard females for longer
-is females shaking just a test?
*less time struggling, guarded for longer
*shows female really trying to remove male
*females interest to decrease time being guarded

271
Q

2) unfavored males

A

female preference for certain males
unfavored males still want to copulate
physically coerce females
-e.g. in species with sexual size dimorphism

272
Q

female coping mechanisms

A

-females solicitate mating with dominant males
-subordinate males try to mate with her
*emit distress call
*dominant male arrives and harms subordinate
-cloaca in birds
*fowl can evert cloaca to eject sperm

273
Q

manipulating social status

A

-high ranking male put in group where they become low ranking
*sperm ejection increases
-elevated in rank, sperm less likely to be ejected
-females retain sperm of best quality males

274
Q

3) duration of copulation

A

prolonging duration of copulation so more sperm is transferred
does not benefit females

275
Q

male spermatophore

A

-6% of body weight
-2 components
*ampula : contains sperm
*spermatophylax : water & amino acids
-amino acid prolongs copulation after male leaves
-females feed on amino acid, makes her sleepy, nampula attached longer

276
Q

4) parental care duties

A

-in species with bi-parental care, one parent could benefit by deserting
-offspring receive some care from remaining parent
-extra mating outbalances loss of care to first brood
-deserted parent loses fitness
-plenty females, male deserts

277
Q

Kentish plovers

A

female desertion
more males than females so females desert
males lose fitness
females stay if its late in the breeding season or the clutch is very large

278
Q

North American garter snakes

A

-end of hibernation, males want to copulate with as many females as possible, even immature ones
-females killed in communal dens
-small females most at risk
-vary hibernation time to avoid males

279
Q

South American fur seals

A

-males sexually mature at 4-5 but mating is dominated by 7-9 year olds
-younger males cooperate by dragging female out to sea
-cooperation stops when out at sea, males start fighting over female
-female can accidentally die

280
Q

6) intentional damage to female during mating

A

-if mating is dangerous, females avoid remating: reduces risk of sperm displacement
-may reduce female survival: she might release more eggs increasing male paternity

281
Q

chemical warfare in drosophila

A

-chemical in male seminal induces hyper-ovulation in females
males get more offspring
females get shortened life
evolution of female resistance to chemicals

282
Q

bean beetle

A

-intentional damage
-damages females reproductive tract
releas all gametes they have left?

283
Q

flatworms

A

hermaphrodites
shoot sperm at each other to erode epithelium and allow sperm in
can get ripped in half but don’t die

284
Q

7) survival of previous young

A

lions:
*males in pride don’t often have conflict
*new pride males can’t take over pride
*kill previous young to bring female into oestrus
*female tries to hide young

285
Q

lactational amenhoria

A

in mammals
females can’t come back into oestrus when lactating

286
Q

orcas: survival of young

A

male wants to kill neonate to bring mother back into oestrus
females will try t band together to attack male
males mother helps male kill baby orca

287
Q

8) survival of the male

A

-sexual canabalism in praying mantis and orb web spiders
-likely when females are larger than male
-when females are predatory

288
Q

non-metal parasitism

A

the parasite benefits from relationship, while host pays cost

289
Q

classic parasites

A

can be divided into Endo and ectoparasites
isopods attach to tongue of fish and eats it
* fish can use isopod as tongue
* isopod continues to feed on fish
fluke worms

290
Q

parasitoids

A

spends portion of development inside host, typically consumes and/or kills host before emerging
free-living life stage

291
Q

parasites overview

A

approx 20% all species are parasites
all of us have some kind of parasite at any given time
-living organisms are a landscape or canvas where parasites cab act
-virulence of parasite depends on needs of parasite

292
Q

black spot disease

A

when get loads of black spots, other fish don’t want to skool with it
indirect parasitism
* host more likely to be eaten

293
Q

sacculina and shore crabs

A

parasitic barnacles
attaches to crab & enters through leg joint
* crab doesn’t know
once crab infected, doesn’t moult again or regenerate lost limbs
crab can’t reproduce

294
Q

sacculina

A

-energy diverted from crab reproduction to sacculina
-crab reproductive behaviour co-opted for dispersing sacculina eggs
-egg bearing females groom and clean the egg pouch and fan water over it
* both males and females do this

295
Q

caterpillars and parasitic wasps

A

females oviposits into caterpillar
caterpillar continues to develop and feed until larvae emerge
some larvae stay behind
control caterpillar so it will protect larval eggs from predators

296
Q

emerald cockroach wasp

A

-delivers 2 stings to cockroach brain
-1st sting causes paralysis
-2nd sting, more precise location, sub-oesophageal ganglia, disables escape reflex
-leads cockroach to hole and lays egg on it
-grun hatches and eats cockroach alive, but in very specific order

297
Q

malaria

A

-plasmodium manipulate mosquito in 3 ways
*reduces risky feeding
*interferes with blood drinking
*tinkers with chemosensory system of mosquito
-mosquitos attracted to particular smells

298
Q

cordyceps

A

fungus: ant brain jacker
infects ant brain
fungus erupts from ants head
makes ant climb up high, so when fungus erupts, spread is maximised

299
Q

trophic transmission

A

animal needs to be eaten for transmission to happen

300
Q

parasitic flatworm

A

-adult stage release eggs, excreted by bird
-eggs eaten by snail, hatch into larvae: miracida
-miracidia travel to gut, develop into sporocysts
-brood sacs highly conspicuous to birds, which eat them

301
Q

parasite conspicuousness

A

e.g. orange spot causes infected animals to be eaten more frequently
may exploit sensitivity of fish = receiver bias

302
Q

toxoplasmosis

A

most successful parasite on earth
starts life in cats
carried by rats and mice
toxoplasma convinces host to be eaten by cat
human behavioural changes:
*slower reaction times
*schizoprhenia
*reckless behaviour

303
Q

host countermeasure : allo-grooming

A

many animals allogroom
social functions
*affiliation reinforcement
*reconciliation
*courtship
*bond reinforcement
economic function, traded for food or sex

304
Q

anting

A

birds allow ants to move over their feathers removing parasites
some species also crush ants and anoint themselves with formic acid

305
Q

cleaner fish

A

smaller fish remove parasites from larger fish, including predators
mutualism : both parasites benefit from coopearating

306
Q

cleaner wrasse

A

-client fish held in cages with and without cleaners
-fewer parasites on clients held with cleaners
-wrasse occasionally cheat but overall benefit clients

307
Q

oxpeckers

A

-remove echo-parasites from various ungulates
-also drink blood and prevent wounds healing
-excluding/allowing oxpeckers had no effect on parasite levels
-clients wounds took longer to heal when oxpeckers were present

308
Q

zoopharmacognosy

A

-ingestion or application of substances to kill parasites or discourage them from setting
-olive baboons eat leaves to kill blood flukes
-brown bears apply osha roots to fur to repel blood feeding insects

309
Q

birds and nicotine

A

in Mexico City, birds incorporate cigarette butts into nests
nicotine kills ecto-parasites
number of butts negatively correlated with parasite density

310
Q

cooperation

A

a behaviour which provides a benefit to another individual (recipient) and which is selected for because of its beneficial effect on the recipient

311
Q

many animals appear to act cooperative

A

-animals e.g. lions, sailfish, hunt in groups
-meerkats act as sentinels allowing others to forage
-social Hymenoptera have non-reproductive individuals which work “for the benefit of the colony?”

312
Q

prisoners dilema

A

-2 robbers arrested and held separately. insufficient evidence so each offered a choice;
1. testify against each other and be set free
2. stay silent and serve a short sentence
-don’t know what the other will do

313
Q

prisoners dilemma pay-off matrix

A

-prisoner A + B cooperate = 6 months
-A cooperates, B defects = A gets 10 years
-both defect = 5 years

314
Q

prisoner dilemma as an ESS

A

cooperation is not an ess
it is the optimal solution overall but rational choice is defection

315
Q

kin selection

A

-characteristics favoured due to their beneficial effects on the survival of close relatives
-benefit for offspring and non-descendant kin
*parental care
*feeding siblings
*defence of family territory
*sterile workers

316
Q

direct fitness

A

reproduction

317
Q

indirect fitness

A

aiding survival and reproduction of non-descendant kin

318
Q

inclusive fitness

A

direct + indurent fitness (Hamilton 1964)

319
Q

coefficient of relatedness (r)

A

a measure of genetic similarity
descendant kin
*offspring: r=0.5
*grandchildren: r=0.25
*great-grandchildren: r=0.125
non descendant kin
*full sibling: r=0.5
*half sibling, niece/nephew: r=0.25
*cousins: r=0.125

320
Q

Hamiltons rule

A

central theorem of inclusive fitness (kin selection)
* predicts social behaviour evolves under specific combinations of relatedness, benefit and cost
* NS favours genetic success

321
Q

Hamiltons rule : predictions

A

-predicts when an altruistic gene will be favoured by selection
-if cost to donor is C and benefit to recipient is B, gene will inrease in frequency if :
rB>C
-r= relatedness of recipient to donor

322
Q

genetic success

A

passing on of specific genes

323
Q

reproductive success

A

=fitness

324
Q

Hamiltons rule rB>C

A

-B = 10, C= 2
* offspring: r=1/2, 1/2(10)= 5 5>2 (benefit)
* grandkids: r=1/4 1/4(10)= 2.5 2.5>2 (benefit)
*great grandkids: r=1/8 1/8(10)=1.25 1.25<2 (cost)

325
Q

cooperation as a by-product

A

-can arise as byproduct of a selfish act
-cooperation is best option from selfish POV, but also provides benefit to others
-mutualisms in foraging, territory defence, predator detection

326
Q

cooperative hunting game

A

-two players share food equally
-solo hunter will be mildly successful (4 units of energy) so each gets 2 units
*hunting costs 1 unit, so pay-off to hunter is 2-1 = 1 unit
-mutual hunting generates higher pay-off (10 units)
*both individuals get 5-1 = 4 units

327
Q

reciprocity

A

-humans and primates
-problem of cheating
-can be an ESS under certain conditions
-cooperate for as long as others do
* always copy move of other individuals, but start cooperatively
*optimal strategy

328
Q

iterate prisoners dilema

A

best strategy = tit for tat
*cooperate on first iteration; after that do what opponent did on previous move
successful strategies were nice, retaliating, foraging and non-envious
*punish defection, cooperate if opponent cooperates, don’t try to outscore opponent

329
Q

sharing of blood in vampires

A

-feed close relatives and unrelated roost mates that fail to find a meal
-donors recognise cheats
-close association in roosts is important
-benefit to the recipient greatly outweighs cost to donor

330
Q

enforcement on cleaner wrasse

A

-client fish punish cleaners who feed on them, rather than their parasites, by chasing them or fleeing away
-cleaners are more likely to feed on parasites after being punished

331
Q

manipulation

A

-what looks like cooperation on part of the donor may have evolved through the manipulation by the recipient
-inter and intra specific brood parasitism
-some pollination systems e.g. bee orchids
-some seed dispersal systems e.g. burdock fruits

332
Q

cooperative breeding definition

A

a system of breeding characterised by the normal presence of helpers at some or all nests
any type of parental behaviour e.g. nest maintenance

333
Q

helper definiton

A

an individual that performs parent like behaviour toward young that are not its own offspring

334
Q

singular breeding

A

one breeding female per group

335
Q

plural breeding

A

two or more breeding females per group, with either seperate or joint nests

336
Q

social system diversity in CB

A

-solitary to colonial breeders
-helpers of either sex, related or unrelated to breeders
-monogamous, polyandrous, polygynous, polygynandrous
-mammals often see female helpers, birds often see males

337
Q

florida scrub jay characteristics

A

-extremely limited, oak scrub habitat
-critically endangered
-singular breeding
-non-migratory, year round all purpose territory
-relatively long lived
-monogamous
-completely extirpated in southern florida
-great numbers only in state parks

338
Q

florida scrub jay - cooperative breeding

A

-offspring delay dispersal for at least 1 year (up to 3 years females, 6 years males)
-offspring are helpers to parents
*e.g. vigilance
*not a lot of habitat for them to disperse to, so stay behind in hope of inheriting territory

339
Q

cooperative breeding black backed jackal

A

monogamous pairs
1-3 helpers from previous litters
helpers feed pups and breeding female
helpers increase fitness of breeders
a lot of food, not many places to go, so form big groups

340
Q

facultative cooperative breeders

A

capable of breeding as lone pairs and forming extended family groups when conditions (abundant food, limited vacant territories) favour philopatry over dispersal

341
Q

cooperative breeding dwarf mongoose

A

-helpers prevented from breeding for 3-4 years by alpha male and female
-stress other females out so much, cause a shift in hormones so they physically can’t breed
-unrelated helpers: waiting to take over breeding territory
-breeding helpers: older helper females may be allowed to breed

342
Q

pseudopregnant helpers

A

young females may mate and lactate, but do not give birth

343
Q

cooperative breeding in anemone fish

A

clown fish
-pairs defend territories (anemones) and may allow unrelated helpers to assist
-helpers are investing in the long-term take over of the territory
-protandrous hermaphrodites
-either one of breeding pair dies, smaller helper can assume the male role

344
Q

habitat saturation model

A

all suitable breeding habitat filled
*individuals forced to delay dispersal
experimentally tested in superb fairy wrens by removal of breeding adults

345
Q

marginal habitat model

A

additional constraint is the lack of habitats of marginal quality
* eliminates potential for non-breeding floaters
CB= best of bad job when breeding is limited

346
Q

benefits of philopatry model

A

-intra-population variation in breeding territory quality
-individuals born in high quality natal territories have intrinsic reasons to remain home

347
Q

life history hypothesis

A

emphasises role of life history in evolution of cooperative breeding
cooperative breeders viewed as being on the K end of the r-K continuum

348
Q

K end of continuum

A

delayed maturity, high adult survival, small clutch size, low reproductive rate, low dispersal rate

349
Q

kin selection and CB

A

helping may increase production on non-descendant kin
helpers must be closely related to breeders
explain 55% of CB in birds

350
Q

enhanced survivorship

A

-helping may increase survivorship until breeding is possible
*large group for defending territory, finding food, detecting predators
-heloing may be form of rent payment to avoid expulsion from territory

351
Q

territorial inheritance

A

helpers may inherit territory from breeders or may be able to bud-off a section of territory

352
Q

coalition formation

A

larger groups able to retain territory, increasing fitness of all group members

353
Q

future mate acquisition

A

if males are in short supply, secondary males may be waiting to become primary males

354
Q

CB- pied kingfisher

A

-primary helper is related to breeding pair
-secondary helper is unrelated
*ties to form bond with breeding female s
*48% of secndary males mate this way

355
Q

theories of lek evolution

A

6 THEORIES:
-hotshot
-hotspot
-female preference
-reduced predation
-black hole
-kin selection

356
Q

promiscuity

A

-mating systems without pair bond formation
-brief encounters between individuals
-single or multiple matings
-males often indiscriminate
-females should still be choosy
*good genes

357
Q

scramble competition promiscuity

A

-when females are widely scattered, males compete to find and mate first with females
-horseshoe crabs mate in extreme breeding assemblages a few nights a year
*males in good condition arrive attached to females
*males in bad condition act as satellites

358
Q

promiscuity and male influence

A

-male benefits if female doesn’t mate with other males
-nuptial gifts can influence female behaviour
-sperm competition very important with multiple matings

359
Q

Leks definition

A

-aggregations where males defend small display territories
-displays typically energetically expensive and elaborate

360
Q

promiscuous mating system

A

no pair bonds
males provide no parental care
females only gain sperm

361
Q

lek example

A

-mammals around 12 species: ungulates, pinnipeds, bats
-birds around 150: waders, grouse, hummingbirds, cotingas, manakins, birds of paradise, kakapo
-marine iguana
-similar systems in fish, amphins & insects; only recently refered to as leks

362
Q

white-bearded manakin leks

A

-males each defend a sapling and bare patch of ground they have cleared
*70 display areas in 150m2
*display: rapid perch change, snapping wings
-female choses male, mates and leaves
-alpha male, number 1 male on lek has way over 70% of matings
-quite long lived, so alpha one year likely to be alpha again next year

363
Q

hotspot hypothesis

A

-males aggregate where they are most likely to encounter females
-where there are large numbers of females, find large numbers of males
-driven by female distribution
-males are conforming to an IFD driven by female distribution

364
Q

IFD

A

=ideal free distribution

365
Q

hotspot hypothesis examples

A

-walruses wait near feeding areas
-male New Zealand lesser short-tailed bats form singing roosts close to communal roosts
-females have very large foraging ranges, but always return to the communal day roosts

366
Q

hotshot hypothesis

A

leks from around alpha male
subordinate males are making the best of a bad job
cluster around hotshot male hoping to get an occasional copulation
best place to be is right next to the most attractive male

367
Q

female preference hypothesis

A

-males form a group to stimulate females
-fmelaes may not breed until they have ‘shopped around’
-if female sees couple of attractive males displaying, unlikely to mate with them as can’t compare across range of males
-males forded to aggregate to allow females to ‘check out the talent’
-really large leks should be the most successful

368
Q

black hole model

A

also called female harassment model
-females go to leks, because when on them they encounter older more experienced males that won’t harass them
-use leks as shelter
-no preference for lek position or male quality

369
Q

kin selection and leks

A

-the evolution of characteristics which favour the survival and reproduction of close relatives
-individuals displaying on shared leks or leks in close proximity to one another, are sometimes related
-but on most leks, males are unrelated

370
Q

uganda kob

A

perfectly linear relationship between lek size and females visiting
-contradicts female preference hypothesis
-if correct, we would expect small leks to have almost no visits

371
Q

topi

A

are females harassed less on leks?
oestrus female topi chased most when on leks
contradicts black hole hypothesis

372
Q

ruffs

A

-leks located near pools where females go to feed
*supposts hotspot hypothesis
-within leks, spatially structured
*subordinates close to alpha male have higher fitness
*supports hotshot hypothesis

373
Q

behaviour

A

everything an animal does
horses and dogs can read human facial expressions

374
Q

innate behaviour

A

that which the animal in born to perform, sometimes refered to as instinctive

375
Q

learned behaviour

A

that which develops as the animal grows and gathers experience
-caveat: pften no hard and fast distinction between learned and innate

376
Q

paedomorphisis

A

retaining juvenile characteristics in adulthoodh

377
Q

behaviours: why them happen

A

-often have a trigger e.g. fixed action patterns occur in response to a sign stimulus
*sign stimulus -> releasing mechanism ->FAP
-releasing mechanism isa neural pathway
-fixed action pattern (FAP) is behavioural response
-sometimes in the wild mother who lost cubs adopt other baby animals (nurture response)

378
Q

example - sexual attraction in sticklebacks

A

-tinbergen experiment
-different male shape and colour configurations to determine what females were responding to
-females respond to red underside, not whole male -so males red belly is the sign stimulus

379
Q

geese egg retrieval

A

-sight of displaced egg triggers retrieval behaviour
-this behaviour can be triggered by a vairiety of objects
-anything ‘egg like’ gooses will take to nest

380
Q

Human Induced Rapid Environmental Change (HIREC)

A

habitat: change/loss/fragmentation
invasive/exotic species: predators, pathogens, competitiors
human harvesting/disturbance: eco-tourism, fisheries
pollution: noise, vsiual, chemical
climate change

381
Q

HIREC ecological traps

A

turtles going into road
tree frog eating fairlylight because it looks like prey item; beetle
flies laying eggs on glass thinking its water

382
Q

HIREC pests?

A

-lionfihs invasive in Atlantic Ocean
*impossibl to contain without natural predator

383
Q

cane toads

A

introduced to australia, but eat everything
anything that eats them dies
toad flavoured sausage with nausea inducing chemical introduced to environment so animals eat them and develop aversion to toads

384
Q

signal detection theory

A

ability to differentiate between important stimuli and random noise

385
Q

individual heterogeneity

A

personality
undertand better if we compare animals to how humans feel
on a continuum

386
Q

personality is related to

A

a. group living
b. dispersal and migration
c. reproducitve succes
d. response to environmental pertubation
e. risk of predation/parasitism
f. interspecific interactions
g. competition
h. habitat use
and so on (ubiquitous)

387
Q

temperament

A

traits affect survival and evolution
behavioural syndromes
different traits of particular behaviours

388
Q

water striders

A

-hyper-aggressive male try to mate with everything; male, female, split couples, dead insects they should be eating etc
-aggressive females: prey capture, web building, colony defence
-docile females; parental care

389
Q

behavioural syndromes

A

-suites of correlated behaviours expressed either within a given behavioural context or between different contexts
-e.g. bold indivuals, more aggressive, solitary, active, show less parental care, live short lives and have low immunity

390
Q

sociality

A

-to some, refers specifically to animals which form societies
-to others, everything is in some sense social
-in this instance, social animals are those that live in groups
-can call any group of animals, including humans, a swarm

391
Q

social aggregations

A

-true social aggregations usually invlve social attraction
-animals in social aggregations must be able to communicate - need to be in sensory proximity
-not the same as resource-based aggregations
*where, if gven resource is clumped in space and time, animals that require that resource are as well

392
Q

different social aggregations

A

-things occur on a continuum
-facultative sociality : associate socially when needed e.g. cheetahs, sometimes brothers work together even though they are typically solitary
-obligate sociality: associate socially throughout life
-many species move along this continuum at different stages of life

393
Q

other social continuum

A

free entry : restricted entry
-decision on whether to accept new member to group
*may be due to relatedness etc
-starlings and sparrows
*in some cases, newcomers have to join at bottom of pecking order

393
Q

hering

A

spend entire life in close proximity
if isolated, die

394
Q

changers

A
  • many species change their degree of sociality as they age, or across different seasons
    -e.g. many fish highly social as juveniles, but become increasingly solitary with age
    *also seen in crustaceans
    -others, social as adult except in breeding season when sexes, typically, seggregate
395
Q

locusts

A

-dramatic shift from being almost entirely solitary to being gregarious
-transition caused by tickling?
*hormonal cascade
*massive physiological changes
*brain size increases
*start producing pheromone

396
Q

advantages of group living

A

-protection against predations
-increased foraginf efficiency
-reproductive success
-energy/resource conservation

397
Q

finding food in groups

A

1.with more individuals, groups can search an area more efficiently
2. the group acts as an ‘information centre’ and comprises the collective info of group members

398
Q

producers and scroungers

A

an example of game theory
should you go out to look for food, or let someone else do it?

399
Q

sailfish

A

surround sardines
injure them by slashing group
sailfish groups mainatin high attack frequency
left/right handedness dependent on worn-ness of bill

400
Q

co-operative foraging orcas

A

-biggest species of dolphin
-hint seals together
-seal makes raft to protect themselves from waves
-orcas push raft so seal is no longer protected
-orca blows bubbles to disorientate seal

401
Q

cooperative hunting

A

ability to catch larger prey
hyenas, high catch rate but loose prey to bigger predators
army ants band together to break pupae of pupating insect

402
Q

wild dogs

A

-optimum group size for catching largest prey
-1-2 individuals = fawn thompsons gazelle
-4 individuals = adult thompsons gazelle
-6 individuals can take down an adult wildebeest

403
Q

antipredation benefits of group living

A

-mnay eyes hypothesis
-reduced encounter rate
*simple clumping of prey distribution
*selfish herd
-reduce predator success
*vigilance
*dilution effect
*confusion
*predator-predator interference
*mobbing, cooperative defence

404
Q

selfish herd theory

A

each individual tries to reduce its own domain of danger
put another individual in the way to protect yourself

405
Q

group structure

A

-different positions bring different pay-offs
-safest place is centre of group
*but central individuals get less food
-so if hungry, move to front to get food, if not, fall back to be protected

406
Q

many eyes hypothesis

A

as group size increases, members can decrease their own vigilance without increasing risk of attack
-falcon can get 1 pigeon when by themselves, but as group size increase, can’t get close

407
Q

predator confusion

A

-encountering large group of animals can cause sensory overload
-predator success rate drops as prey group size increases
-when encountering large group, predators appear to be indecisive, hesitation allows prey to escape
-only works if all prey look the same

408
Q

costs of group living

A

competition
increased risk of parasitism and disease
increased opportunity of reproductive interference/suppression
conspicuousness

409
Q

collective behaviours

A

-phenomena that result from social interactions among individuals
-governed by principle of self organisation
-behaviour of small components linked to functioning of dynamic group level properties

410
Q

starling collective behaviours

A

-swarm for protection against predators
-individuals in group seem to act in unison
-turn togehter, move as one
-each agent adopts simple rules
-created by watching neighbour

411
Q

ant trail following

A

-after finding food, ant migrates to nest leaving pheromones behind
-migrates betwee nest and food, each time building up more pheromone
-other ants pick up trail to food source

412
Q

lane formation

A

-humans walking on same side they drive on
-ants pick a side to walk on and stick to it
-don’t bump into each other

413
Q

zonal rules of interaction

A

-local focus: interact with a few near neighbours
1. zone of repiulsion (too close)
2. zone of orientation: move in same direction to stay with them
3. zone of attraction: too far away, so move closer (speed up to catch up)

414
Q

zone sizes

A

-state and species dependant
-highily social species, more tolerant to high packing density
*sardines, herring, smaller zone of repulsion, largr zone of attraction
-hungry animal may enact large zone of repulsion and small (or no) zone of allignement
-fearful animals may enact a large zone of allignment and small zone of repulsion

415
Q

examples of animals using zones

A

-individual animals respond to nearest neighbours
-wave of information spreads through group
-information speed typically > individuals

416
Q

self-organised groups

A

-have to make collective decisions
bases of this :
a. interacting individuals
b. variation
c. amplification
d. positive and negative feedback
-more leaders, more individuals will follw what leaders do
*rely on decision of multiple individuals

417
Q

quorum

A

only follow when a threshold number of leaders has been exceeded

418
Q

leadership

A

-in caribou etc, experienced animals lead others through habitat
-don’t ‘shoot the leader’ as other individuals will become displaced

419
Q

consensus building

A

timing & direction
if group spilts, all may lose benefits of group membership
increase in activity prior to move = active recruitment

420
Q

swarm intelligence SI

A
  1. individuals independently acquire information
  2. info combined and processed through social interaction
  3. cognitive problem solved in way that cannot be implemented by isolated individuals
    - wisdom of the crowd
    -differential experience of individuals across groups
    -animals at edge detect change and info spread through group

ABW (10 decks)

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