BIOL320Z: animal nutrition Flashcards
1
Q
qualitative nutrition
A
physiological/metabolic processes involved in meeting nutrient requirements
- accountable, measurable
2
Q
quantitative/applied nutrition
A
quantification of nutrient requirements, nutrient evaluation of food and formulation of diets
- without numbers
- behaviour, body condition scoring etc
3
Q
themes and issues
A
- what they eat: chemistry, physics, biology
- faeces: analyse content to see what they eat
- how many calories needed?
- type and amount of fibre
- how animals process food before eating it
- hunting
- transporting food
4
Q
nature of food
A
- specialised diet : carnivores, herbivores, fructivores, insectivores
- typically eat what available in their environment: adapted
5
Q
herbivorous species
A
- 10 orders
- 40% of species
6
Q
frugivores, granivores and nectivorous species
A
- 5 orders
- 4% of species
7
Q
carnivorous species
A
- 4 orders
- 12% of species
8
Q
plankonivorous species
A
- 2 orders
- <1% of species
9
Q
insectivorous species
A
- 10 orders
- 33% of species
10
Q
omnivorous species
A
- 7 orders
- 10% species
11
Q
functions of digestive systems
A
- ingestion of food
- transport of food
- nutrient synthesis by microorganisms
12
Q
digestion
A
reduction of macromolecules to molecules that can be absorbed by the blood
13
Q
absorption
A
passage of nutrients to the blood
14
Q
excretion
A
elimination of indigestible components of diet, bile etc
15
Q
spiders
A
inject enzymes into their prey to dissolve them and suck up products
16
Q
birds
A
partially digest and regurgitate food to feed their chicks
17
Q
obtaining food/feeding methods
A
-non-mammalian vertebrates: undifferentiated teeth (except poisonous snakes)
-birds: adaptation of beaks to food sources
18
Q
species dependant GI tract adaptations
A
- stomach type:
-simple, sacculated to compartments for storage/fermentation
-some stomachs only for things passing through quickly
-large intestine : variations in length, volume, compartmentalisation
19
Q
teeth function
A
- carnivores, function of tearing/shearing
- molars, breaking down plant material
- ungulates, shreading/grinding tougher food
-muscles, adapted for how they eat
20
Q
diversity in prehension
A
-lips: horses, sheep, rhinos
-forelimbs: primates, raccoons
-tongue: cows, longer tongue and more specific snout
-snout: pig, anteater, tapir, elephant
21
Q
common structure of digestive systems
A
-bladder
-caecum (herbivores)
-crop (gizzard, birds)
-esophagus
-gall bladder
-liver
-large intestine
-pancreas
-pyloric appendices
-spiral gut
-small intestine
-stomach
22
Q
cyclostomes
A
-basic
-long-tube (oesophagus) with connections to the liver and gall bladder
23
Q
elasmobranchs
A
-clear hindgut
-cloaca ; excretion
-size of area of system relates to importance in digestion
-big pancreas
24
Q
amphibians
A
-simpler structure but longer small intestine
-big liver compared to other organs
-esophageous, pancreas, gallbladder, large intestine, bladder
25
bird digestive system
-esophageous
-crop
-liver
-stomach
-pancreas
-caecum
26
herbivores (rabbits)
-hindgut fermenter
-a lot more happens after the stomach
-caecum: recevoir of microorganisms
27
carnivores vs omnivores
-carnivore, shorter transit time than omnivores
-carnivores intestine is not as long and complex to prevent bones etc getting stuck
28
auto enzymatic digesters
-digestive enzymes produced and secreted by animal
-non-compartmentalised stomach
-range of feeding strategies
29
alloenzymatic digesters
-digestive enzymes produced by gut microflora
-ruminants: compartmentalised stomach
-non-ruminants
-foregut fermenters
-hindgut fermenters
-feeding strategies : herbivores (majority), omnivores
30
mono gastric
-differences according to feed type
-simple, non-compartmentalised stomach, e.g. dog, human
-sacculated stomach e.g. kangaroo
-simple stomach with enlarged caecum e.g. horse, rabbit, rat
31
complex, multi-compartmentalised stomach
-ruminants
-some differences according to feed type
32
pre-gastric
eat something, before goes into stomach, already broken down
33
post-gastric fermenters: caecal digesters
-capybara: grazers
-rabbit: selective herbivores
-rat, mouse: omnivores
34
post-gastric fermenters: colonic digesters sacculated
-elephant, horse, zebra: grazers
-new world monkeys: folivores
-pig, human: omnivores
35
post-gastric fermenters: colonic digesters unsacculated
-panda: herbivores
-dog, cat: carnivores
36
folivore
eats leaves
37
post-gastric fermenters
happens after animal has processed/broken down most food but not processed the energy
-foregut digesters
-amylase in saliva breaks down starch to release sugar
38
# examples
pre gastric fermenters ruminants
-cattle, sheep: grazing, herbivores
-deer, antelope (camel): selective herbivores including folivores and frugivores
39
pre gastric fermenters non ruminants
-colobine monkey, hamster, vole: selective herbivores
-kangaroo, hippo: grazing and selective herbivores
-hoatzin: folivore
40
ruminants
-grass/roughage eaters:
-eat anything
-don't spend loads of energy looking for specific food
-eat 3 times a day
-concentrate selectors: eating all the time
-intermediate: 5-7 times a day
41
reticule-rumen
-fermentation
-absorption of SCFAs via papillae
42
SCFAs
short chain fatty acids
43
papillae
-cabbage looking structure
-changes with age/season
-increases rumens surface area and amount it can absorb
44
VFA
volatile fatty acids
45
reticulum
-traps indigestible objects from entering stomach
-used in mineral supplementation
46
omasum
-absorbs water
-acts as a sieve allowing small particles to pass into abomasum
47
abomasum
'true stomach'
48
size of compartment % changes with age : reticulum
-newborn reticulum: 30%
-10-12 week reticulum: 67%
-adult reticulum: 5%
49
size of compartment % changes with age : rumen
newborn: 30%
10-12 weeks: 67%
adult: 80%
50
size of compartment % changes with age : omasum
newborn: 70%
10-12 weeks: 33%
adult: 7-8%
51
size of compartment % changes with age : abomasum
newborn: 70%
10-12 weeks: 33%
adult: 8-9%
52
interactions: digestion time and energy
-use energy to get food and eat
-start to get energy back from eating
-maximum energy we are going to get from that food
-come to point where animal decides to keep eating and then keep digesting
-keep energy high
53
interactions: food quality
-get more energy from high quality food
-not always possible for animal to get high quality food
-takes longer to digest low quality food
-so more energy
54
kangaroo rat
-slimmer
-spend more time looking for high quality food they can digest quick
-high metabolism
55
auto enzymatic digestion (hydrolytic/host) process
-can start breaking down carbs in mouth (amylase)
-dietary fibre
-doesn't get digested, excreted along to help with bowel movements
-proteases secreted by pancreas
-gastric juice
-proteases, lipases, amylases
-some single AAs absorbed immediately, others take longer
56
dietary sources of carbohydrate
-rapidly fermented; sugars, starch, fructo-oligosaccharides
-slowly fermented: 'fibre'-cellulose, hemicellulose
57
end products of carb fermentation
-SCFAs: acetic (C2), propionic (C3), butyric (C4)
-gases: CO2, H2 and CH4 (~10% gross energy in ruminants)
-heat of fermentation (~10% GE in ruminants)
58
nutrient absorption from GI tract
-simple diffusion: lipid molecules e.g. SCFAs
-facilitated diffusion: GLUT5 and GLUT2
-active transport of glucose and AAs
-lipid absorption as chylomicrons
59
cecal dysbiosis
refers to the disruption of the delicate balance of organisms within the rabbits digestive tract
60
caecotrophs
a type of soft faecal pellet which some animals consume
61
caecal vs ruminant digestion
-rodents recycle faeces (coprophagy)
-water conservation
-overnight round pellets (cecotrophs)
-communication: pheromones
-equids are caecal digesters
62
caecal vs ruminant digesters : evolutionary advantage
-when food has high fibre content, caecal digesters increase throughput where vegetation is unlimited, ruminants do not
-under favourable conditions, caecal digestion is 70% as efficient as rumination
63
common problems in captivity - causes
-Langurs: digestive upset and malnutrition
-Lemurs: hind-gut digestion, prone to obesity
-Giraffes: poor body condition
-Elephants, rhinos, tapirs: obesity
64
Nutrition
-describes the quality of diet and level of nutritional status
-essential nutrients are those that become important under defined conditions e.g
-growth
-reproduction
-migration
hibernation
-requirements are for nutrients not for foods
65
nutrients
-energy
-protein
-micronutrients
-essential minerals
-vitamins
66
physiological processes
-maintenance
-growth
-lactation
-reproduction
-activity
67
requirements for what?
-optimal nutrition for cows producing optimal yield of milk
-dairy cows/farms
-animals in the wild/ones we don't know well may have 'odd' nutrient requirements
-as they have evolved/adapted to their wild environment
68
macro-nutrients
-energy
-CHO or fat
-EFAs
-protein
-total protein (crude protein)
-EAAs
-need some in certain proportions
69
energy
-an animal will require a given amount of energy per day
-if we don't have certain nutrients, body will balance it by taking something from storage
-hibernating, need less energy
70
energy requirements
-gender differences
-male birds: displays etc, females more systems?
-size and activity level
-males fighting
-stage of lifecycle
-growing, pregnant, lactating, brooding
-lifestyle
-activity levels, grazing, hunting, migrating, hibernating etc
71
energy from food
-energy in the solid, not the water
-derive more energy from fats than carbs
-amount of food needed to supply energy will depend on;
-water content
-CHO vs Fat
-fibre content
-apetite
-energy content of food (MJ/Kg)
-digestible energy (DE)
-metabolisable energy (ME)
72
net for maintenance
amount of energy for an animal that is not eating (fasting)
73
measuring ME
-means of collecting
-urine
-combustible gases in ruminants
-apparent ME
-birds
-don't have energy loss in urine so easier to measure
74
indirect calorimetry
-measurement of respiratory exchange
-most ways animal gets energy is by oxidising nutrients
-happens in the cells
-oxygen is needed to breaks things down
-sugars can be broken down anaerobically
-W.75 = faster metabolism
75
effects of environment on heat production
-temperature, rain, humidity, speed (evaporative heat losses)
-requirements in sheltered v non-sheltered
environments
-effects of environmental temperature
76
farming
-energy used dependant on activity
-Kilo= 1,000 time less than Mega
-sheep: walking uses 5 times more energy than changing positions
-most sheep behave the same but have different energy requirements
77
protein function
-carnivorous land animals, fish and marine vertebrates require a high proportion of protein: energy in diet
-crude protein measured by weight
-during lactation, require more protein
-turn nitrogen into protein
-protein requirements ; meet needs for EAAs and NEAAs
78
essential AAs
-vital for tissue repletion, growth and development
-essentials are those that can't be synthesised
-20 AAs for protein
9-12 EAAs
-must be provided in diet
79
limiting amino acid
-dairy cows need protein to produce milk
-more methionine, more protein produced in the
milk
-eventually plateaus and has no more increased
effect
-point where if we eat more protein we aren't going to keep growing or producing cells
80
apparent digestibility of protein
faecal digestibility
81
true digestibility of protein
-measured at terminal ileum
-all protein digestion and absorption takes place
82
Lipids
-essential for energy and health
-EFAs important for cell membranes, immunity and general health
omega 3 and 6 fatty acids are found in marine diets and food (omega 3 especially in fish oils)
83
micronutrients - minerals
-requirements vary
-macro-minerals mg-g/day
-micro-minerals ng-mg/day
-Na problem for herbivores
-plants very low in Na
84
vitamins
-water soluble, not accumulated in the body
fat soluble accumulated in fatty muscle
-supplement things into diet to see when diseases arise/go away
-not jut what is eaten but how it is absorbed
-extra requirements for animals in different life stages
-higher need of folic acid in pregnancy
-multivitamins typically given to zoo animals
85
iron
-not fully absorbed when consuming it
-needs to be in small particles to be absorbed
-iron from meat ready to be absorbed into body and start working
86
gout
-sometimes excess protein can be bad
-accumulation of biproducts of protein typically around the feet
87
vitamin E pathologies
-EDM: equine degenerative myeloencephalopathy
-eNAD: equine neuroaxonal dystrophy
-nervous system
-problems can be in more than 1 system
-fertility/reproductive problems
-weight problems
-necrosis
-immunosuppresion
88
Vitamin A
-yellow/orange foods
-deficiany: skin forms like scales
89
water
-'free' and 'bound' water
-variability in feeds
-occurence in animal/requirements
-influences on diet formulation
90
# what goes in
chemical composition of pet feed
-labels on food
-what goes in
-complete means food has everything they need
-'meat' is used as a generic term, could also include parts of lungs/other organs and offal
-offal= high in nutrients
-chemical composition doesn't always relate to what is absorbed by the body
91
crude fibre (CF)
-cell wall constituents
-cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, lignin
-ruminants
-a proportion of CF is digested by foregut fermentation
-dependant on degree of lignification
-non-ruminants
-limited amount of CF digested
-short exposure to fermentation in rear-gut
92
CF : errors
- acid and base solubilise some true fibre
-CF underestimates 'true' fibre
-does not account precisely for contributions of fore/hind gut fermentation
93
Nitrogen Free extract (NFE)
approximates non-structural content (starch and sugars)
-determined by difference between total dry matter and the sum if the other four chemical components
94
pet food quality
- packaging: consistent, fresh, low compliant
-standards
-communication
-ethical
-fit for purpose
-function: taste, appearance, aroma, texture
95
pet food quality: what do you expect as the owner?
-gives you what you need
-meets expectations
-fit for purpose
-branding
-trust
-brand credibility
-e.g. vet backed?
-appealing
96
pet food : ethics
-legal requirements
-prevent smuggling unfit/unsafe foods
-ethics
-fair trade
-organic
-local
-avoid meat
-carbon emissions
-packaging
-avoid waste
97
pet food : safety
-absence of toxins
-hard to measure, no single test to pick them all up
-dont always have resources to measure them all
-cost, time, environment
98
pet food : allergies
-increaing issue in pets
-in human food, companies have to declare typical allergens
-foods become more expensive due to extra checks
99
pet food : feel good factor
-know when something is right for you
-instincts
-important for animals, first thing they know when they eat something
100
feed safety : CDC advice
- do not feed pet raw diet
- consists of foods such as meat, poultry, milk and eggs that have not been cooked or treated to remove harmful germs
-these food items can carry harmful bacteria including salmonella and campylobacter
101
chemical toxicants
-sometimes only find out something is toxic when it is too late
-chives etc toxic to animals
-bread dough toxic to dogs
dark chocolate more fatal to dogs than other chocolates
-toxicants that are worse seem to be mycotoxins
102
mycotoxins
-usually produced by fungi and moulds
-detrimental In small quantities to many organs in animal
-animal without mycotoxins grow 50-6-% more than one with them
-malformation of reproductive system
-liver damage
103
salmonela
-some zoonotic
-could be infecting household
-share a microbiome with your pets
-especially risk of zoonotic gastrointestinal disease
-humans in US getting salmonella
-linked to pets
-pig ear treats infected with salmonella
104
dog nutrient requirements
-careful balance of calcium/phosphorus and sufficient vitamin D for strong bones and healthy teeth
-fats and oils are a source if energy which is important for active and large dogs
-protein to maintain body muscles
105
cat nutrient requirements
-almost twice as much protein as a dog
-vitamin A within very precise limits: too much liver can be harmful
-wrong balance of EFAs -> no shine on coat
-Taurine (vitamin like) essential to prevent eye and heart disease
106
small rodents nutrient requirements
-each type has its own very specific requirements
-hamster needs high protein (meat)
-dwarf rabbit is strictly herbivorous
-guinea pigs : need vitamin C
107
least cost formulation
-optimum nutrition, optimum cost
-provides most economical combination of available ingredients considering restriction for each one
-maximise the use of available ingredients
-restrictions
-cats, vit A restricted to particular value which is less than level of toxicity
108
formulation : optimisation
-least cost feed formulation
-nutritionally complete
-has a minimum ingredient cost
-completed using linear programming software
-used by feed mills/manufacturers
109
catfish
-too much cottonseed meal is toxic, restricted to 10% due to gossypol content
-xanthophyll content restricted due to it using yellow discolouration at high concentrations
110
free choice feeding
-food always available
-many do best in this system
-works best for dry food and low energy levels e.g. grazers (hay)
111
meal-feed feeding
-food offered one or more times a day
-can eat all if animal wants
a) one meal a day, left-overs removed
b) more daily meals, total amount divided and fed in parts
c)restricted feed, food offered at Lowe amount than what animal would if free to do so
112
ration design : ad libitum
give extra food, animal decides how much they need
113
key questions
-all animals in enclosure same species, do we treat them all the same?
-seperate
-dominant/subordinate
-juvenile/adult
-effectiveness
-body condition, behaviour, health
114
nutrients that affect health
-macronutrients
-carbs, protein, fat, water
-micronutrients
-vitamins, electrolytes (minerals), trace elements
115
under nutrition
-weight loss/growth retardation
-starvation
-affected by macronutrients
116
over nutrition
-excess weight gain
-adiposity
-obesity
-affected by macronutrients
117
hidden hunger
-sub-clinical
-clinical deficiencies
-deficiency diseases
-long term
-affected by micronutrients
118
macronutrient balance
-protein, carbs, fats
-use some of them straight away
-others stored in different parts of the body or used for different systems
-synthesise carbs from protein/lipid if needed and vice versa
119
heat regulation
-colder the environment, the more heat and therefore energy is needed
-dogs pant to dissipate heat
120
effect of temperature
-eat more food in cold environments to make up for loss of energy through heat production
-hot environment, food intake low
121
temperature regulation - Adaptation
-fat in hump : need energy to heat up/cool down
-insulated coat: heat can't get in
-long guts to recover more water
-light colour to reflect heat
122
Peri-prandial
water intake at same time as food intake
123
ether extract (EE)- fat/oil
-ether is evaporated and remaining DM is called EE
-fats are soluble in ether -> EE is equivalent to fat or oil
-assumes everything solubilised in ether is fat, but not always the case
-so value might not be related to digestible fat
124
hungry, thirsty or bored?
-circa 70%animals fluid intake is peri-prandial
-succulent diets: no fluid intake is needed
-increase of dry diet, issues with hydration
-lots of people thirsty, don't drink enough water or have enough water in their diet
-water not always considered a nutrient, but very important
125
primary malnutrition
-energy or protein-energy undernutrition
-starvation
-dietary deficiency of a specific nutrient
-vitamin or mineral deficiency
126
secondary malnutrition
-adequate nutrients present
-apetite depressed
-absorption/utilisation disorders
-e.g. sometimes protein is in diet, but animal isn't eating efficiently
-increased nutrient demand to meet physiological needs
-pregnancy and lactation
-immune response/disease
127
starvation process : 1st priority
-prolonged fasting state
-not eating for long time
-priority: maintain glucose supply to the brain
-body starts using protein to make glucose
-gluconeogenic substrates are limited
-amino acids can only be derived from he breakdown of amino acids during fasting
-protein come from muscles
-start breaking down muscle tissue
->emancipation
128
starvation process : 2nd priority
-preserve protein
-shift in fuel use from glucose to fatty acids and ketone bodies
129
ketone body
byproducts of fat breakdown, acetone/alcohol like smell
130
protein malnutrition
-adequate energy, inadequate protein
-insufficient total protein
-serve deficiency in one or more EAA
-characterised by:
-poor growth
-low plasma protein
-muscle wastig
-oedema
-increased susceptibility to infection
131
# illegal capture, giraffe
diet formulation
-animals captured/kept illegal generally quite unwell
-poor or no diet
-malnourised
-giraffe
-specific vit D remuements
-low carb diet
-hoof issues, symptom of over nutrition: obesity
132
Zebra
-typically treated like horses
-but environment and evolution very different
-wet soil/lutious grass is bad
-used to dry environments and grasses
-lower quality foods, eat according to body needs
133
carnivores
-tendency to over feed
-overweight or obese
-low activity levels
-used to roaming, hunting, defending
-behaviour not okay in zoos/homes
-feed few times per week
-a lot of high quality food leads to issues (gout?)
134
goldfish
-substrate
-bigger rocks/pebbles, different interaction than that of small substrate
-smaller rocks, more interaction with nutrients and foraging
135
food provision
-interaction between animal and public
-throw food into enclosure, natural behaviours change - begin to expect food
-reaction to keepers/people who feed them
-anxiety at feeding time
-begging behaviour
-time of day/how many times a dat feeding
-how much time keepers have
136
feeding for reproduction
-pre-mating
-preparation
-energy goes into sexual ornamentation or courtship behaviours
-fighting, dominance etc
-nutrition of the neonate
-nutrition of the new mother: recovery & support
-nutrition of growing animal
137
dairy cows
-mastitis: links to malnutrition
-hoof problems : lack of protein
138
ewes
-body condition correlates with ovulation rate
-higher condition score, higher ovulation rate
139
body condition and fertility
-linked with hormones
-elephant
-dominant females get most of the food
-end up being the only ones reproducing
140
preparation for mating
-grooming
-more nutrients, better coat
-e.g. alpha male
-chickens: dominant cockerel = successful
-period of over-eating -> obesity
-sperm quality/sexual drive
-so, feed them well, but leave them slightly hungry
141
milk composition
-in wild, don't always have enough milk for all young, so only feed one or two
-can't substitute milk of one animal with milk from another
142
# energy
ATP
-adenosine triphosphate
-the source of energy for use and storage at the cellular level
-produced via electron transport chain
143
protein and AA metabolism
-protein synthesis
-constituent AAs from digestion of protein
-cannot store AAs by themselves
-bigger muscle mass when nutrition is good
-when nutrition is bad, muscles reduced by using
AAs for energy
-essential AAs vary between several species
144
Gluconeogenesis
-to get glucose
-fasted:
-haven't had carbs/fats
-need to get energy from skeleton of AAs
-in mono gastric omnivores
145
ketogenesis
-monogastrics
-starvation
-mobilization of lipid
-ruminants
-demand for glucose exceeds supply
-mobilisation of lipid stores
-to get fats/energy from fats
-recruit energy from fat storage
146
animal obesity
-particularly in captivity
-gaining/losing weight is a natural cycle in wild animals
-too much fat :problem
-feeding and genetics
-body condition score
147
# glucose
GI curves
-glucose in blood stream after animal has been fed
-change diet, change amount of sugars going into the body
148
excessive carbs in ruminants
-rot foot
-glucosuria
-sugar in urine symptom
-diabetes
-laminitis
-inflamation of the laminae of the foot
-excessive production of SFAs
-sugar converted into fats with insulin
149
hypoxia
-levles of low oxygen in body tissues leading to inability to maintain adequate homeostasis
150
glycemic control
-regulation of blood glucose
-pancreatic hormones
-insulin B cells
glucagon a cells
151
B cells
-gluconase
-glucose uptake at high blood glucose levels
-B cells responds to high blood glucose
152
# liver/CHO
hepatic glucokinase
rapid uptake of glucose by liver after high CHO meal
153
glucokinase activity
activity regulated mainly by CHO intake and insulin in mammals (exception cats; low hepatic activity)
154
limits to intake
-availability/types of feeds
-size of digestive tract
-rate of digestion, absorption or metabolism of nutrients
-rate of passage through gut and excretion of indigestible material
155
short-term intake regulation
-within meal-meal (feed occasion) basis
-determines quantity/quality of food eaten during single meals and over a period of days
156
long-term intake regulation
-from days to weeks
-modulates sensitivity of short-term regulation
-> maintenance of energy balance/weight in long term
157
balance of 2 systems
-hypothalamus monitors the periphery for signals altering central circuits to energy stores/balance
->long-term control
-brainstem receives oral and gastrointestinal/metabolic information
->short-term control
158
role of leptin
-discovered in 1950's
-mice; homozygous mutant for single leptin gene
-produced mainly in white adipose tissue
-key in feedback control of food intake
-neuropeptide Y suppression
-first link between peripheral blood supply and CNS that regulates long-term energy balance
159
stock enhancement
-overfishing, coastal development and touring activities endanger wild fish stocks
-hatcheries : hatch eggs in a controlled environment and release them
160
polyculture
-complex recreation of ecosystems
-multiple species cultured together
-typically large carnivores
161
aquaculture
-typically refers to food production
-alligators, frogs, soft-shelled turtles also included
-production of aquatic animals and plants under controlled conditions
162
# human food chain
why aquaculture ?
-population estimated to increase to nearly 10 billion by 2050
-we will need 60% more food
-never been more efficient at producing food
-need protein more rapidly than overall food volume
-ample scope to use ocean for food production
-growing 8-9% per year
163
sustainability of aquaculture
-1/2 of seafood we eat comes from aquaculture
-in many ways, more sustainable than terrestrial farming
-not environmental benign, all food production has some impact on the environment
-about reducing the degree of impact
164
fish GI tract
-higher on trophic level, shorter intestine
-carnivorous
-some hindgut fermenters
-not as developed as terrestrial ones
-some gastric, no stomach
-cyprinidae family
-sometimes extended area of the intestine
165
pyloric caeca
pyloric region of the stomach, increases surface area for digestion
166
epibranchial structures
extensions of gills for trapping microorganisms like plankton
167
# what do proteins contain
fish - proteins
-contian C, H, O, N
-most contain 16% N
-not just about level but correct balance of AAs
-don't want protein to be used as energy but transferred into AAs
168
fish - lipids and fatty acids
-contain C, H, O
-most fish require 7-25% dietary lipid
-cheap source of energy
-very easy to digest
-important: phospholipids, lipoproteins, cholesterol
-important for cell membranes
169
EFAs
-essential fatty acids
-omega 3 : brain and cardiovascular development
-marine fish require n-3 HUFA for optimal growth and health
-mainly EPA and DHA
-microalgae only species to produce EPA + DHA -
-freshwater fish don't need LC HUFA, instead need carbon n-3 fatty acid ALA
170
carbohydrates CHO
-no specific requirements
-following digestion & absorption can be used to meet immediate energy needs
-fish generally not good at utilising carbs
171
# stats
max inclusion CHO
-salmonoids: 15-25%
-shrimp: 20-40%
-omnivores: 50%
172
# effects of too much energy
energy: fish
-require less energy relative to protein than terrestrial animals
-carbs, least expensive source
-too much energy: fatty fish, fatty liver, reduced feed intake, reduced growth rates
-insufficient energy: reduced growth, uneconomical use of protein
173
# equation
feed conversion
-feed intake ÷ weight gain
-any fed animal
-feed amount for given unit of biomass
-main operational cost = food
174
juvenile/larval feeding
-tuna : tigers of the sea, often fed raw whole fish
-pelleting machines used to crush things together
-often uses premixes of vitamins and minerals
-sometimes pigments e.g. carotenoids for salmon colour
175
# stats
fish meal and fish oil
-over 25% captured fish are used for non-food products, majority of which produce fishmeal and fish oil
-make up raw materials in animal feed
-bi products: sand eel, no human desire to consumee so goes into fishmeal
-60% fishmeal is used in aquaculture
-225g fishmeal comes from 1Kg of fish
176
catfish protein requirements
28-44%
177
tilapia protein requirements
26-40%
177
carp protein requirements
23-45%
178
salmon protein requirements
40-48%
179
European sea bass protein requirements
45-60%
180
tuna protein requirements
~65%+??
-very large fish, not sure on nutrient requirements
181
enterocytes
-barrier function
-absorption of nutrients
-interact with development of immunity and contents of gut ; pathogens, antigens etc
-lifespan 48-72 hrs
-proliferate through cell emission
-microscopic
-not present prominently when not needed
182
absorptive cells
-hair structures
-analyse nutrient content
-transport system
-linked to circulatory system
183
goblet cells
-produce mucus
-thicker closer to cells
-barrier function
-communication system
-thick mucus = high health status
183
metabolomics
pick up things that have been metabolised
184
# in relation to microbiome and enterocytes
colostrum
-proteins that trigger application of enterocytes in new-born
-body learns of 'friendly' and 'unfriendly' proteins
185
gut microflora
-stable microflora protects against infection and modulates the immune system
-medium is sea of mucus where cells are suspended
-microflora is the defence
-friendly bacteria needed for antigens
-areas of infection, little to no absorption
186
mammals microbiome
-mothers transfer bacteria from mouth by licking young
-young pick up vaginal microflora during natural birth
-pick up bacteria from the environment
-microflora starts getting more variable and complex, starts to regulate
186
is excessive hygiene bad? Avians
-in ovo, GI tract is sterile
-at hatch, chicks exposed to microflora
-in hatcheries, lot of infection in chicks due to living in excessively sterilised environments
-immunocompromised
-fail to establish normal microflora
-infected by salmonella
187
establishing gut microflora in chicks
-people working in hen houses carriers of pests and disease
-disease carried on faeces of chicks
-wanted to know if bacteria in good faeces is good
-chicks sprayed with bacteria from good faeces did better
187
competitive exclusion
-competing for space and nutrient
-barrier function: protects against invasion of pathogens
188
unbalances of microflora
-antibiotics effect microflora
-stress
-some diets unbalance the system
-horses etc, a lot of carbs produces more acid, unbalances microflora
189
# starch
hinfgut fermenters e.g. horses
-if starch intake exceeds capacity of stomach and SI, can't digest and absorb it
-too much starch reaches caecum
-first stage of fermentation is bypassed
-lactic acid production increases
-pH lowers
-lactic acid bacteria increase
-fibrolytic bacteria decrease
189
mastitis in cows
-lactating cows
-infection of the teat
-unhealthy microflora
189
probiotic definition
-viable, non-pathogenic microorganisms which, when ingested, exert a positive influence on host health/physiology
-like a microbial feed supplement which beneficially affects host animal by improving microbial balance
190
disruption of microbial balance in the gut
-increased acidity irritates gut lining and bacterial endotoxins enter the bloodstream
-endotoxaemia and circulatory problems
-laminitis
190
prebiotic definition
-non-digestible food ingredient which beneficially effects host by selectively stimulating growth of bacteria species resident in caecum/colon
-not live
-benefit bacteria that we want to promote
190
symbiotic definition
combination of a probiotic and a prebiotic that selectively stimulates its growth and aids colonisation of the gut
191
alternatives to AGPs s
-antibiotic growth promoters
-presupposes that they will promote animal performance
-small amount of antibiotic helps animal to grow because it changed microflora in they way they metabolise
-banned in Europe as causes obesity
191
metabolic effects
-SCFA production
-production of bacteriocins
-ezyme production: metabolism of host nutrients
-bile salt deconjugation
-detoxification (potential carcinogens)
-iron sequestration
191
existing effects of probiotics
-contribute to balanced gut microflora
-displacement of pathogenic flora
colonisation resistance
191
probiotics in pregnant and lactating mammals
-hotmone changes
-boost in seretonin for nesting and preparing for delivery
-massive increase In cortisol during delivery
-microflora picks up on this stress
-causes sickness, diarrhoea, depression after delivery
192
# glycogen
piglets
-higher glycogen levels help with survival in first hrs after birth
-nutrition prioritised for mothers and young
-higher immune system when fed fermented foods
192
companion origins
-wild cats/dogs hang around people and eat leftovers
-diet and nutritional needs change
-dogs genetics evolved with domestication in relation to what humans were eating
193
dogs: amylase
-dogs become used to eating amylase from being around humans
-can cope with eating starches better than wild counterparts
194
dog food formats
-dry food/kibble cheaper than wet food
-growing trend in natural treats
-bones, hides, dried meats
-cats; treats a lot smaller percentage than seen in dogs
195
retail sales and market value 2012
-hard to predict
-seen increase in people buying food for garden birds
-cat food market value higher than dogs
196
nutrition attitudes
-75% people look for food that has an additional benefit
-51% concerned about pets getting the right nutrients
-21% find it difficult to tell if pet is obese
197
treats…
-50% people prefer to buy treats with added health benefits
-14% would like to see more variety in cat treats
-treats are designed for pet satisfaction
198
specialist products
-activity, age, lifestyle etc
-foods with different speeds if energy release
-drinks for cats, cater to inability to tolerate larg volumes of milk
199
nutritional claim
-any claim that states, suggests or implies that a feed has particular beneficial nutritional properties due to;
a) energy (calorific value)
b) nutrients or other substances it contains, contains in reduced/increased proportions, or
c) does not contain
200
PARNUT
-dietetic food
-feed intended for particular nutritional purposes
-tested to work
-prescribed/reccomended for obesity et
-not medicated
-high prices
201
functional claims
-scientific evidence substantiated by research
-significant contribution towards promotion of health and reduced disease risk e.g. joint diseases
-balance/composition of fatty acids e.g. proven to ave effect, shiny coat in cats
202
nutrient function claims
-at accurate level for given effect
-calcium for strong bones and teeth
-vitamin E protects fat in body tissues from oxidation
203
enhanced function claims
-contains antioxidants to support immune system
-contains chicory to improve growth of beneficial bacteria in the gut b
204
new ethics in animal food
-organic
-no GM (genetic modification)
-no animal products
-locally produced/local businesses
205
what is food made of?
-chemicals
-plants, animals and microbes
-carbs, fats and proteins to provide energy, growth, maintenance and survival
-vitmains and minerals in small amounts in order for body to function
-fibre for digestion
206
how does food spoil?
-time dependant
-enzyme action
-natural enzymes
-breakdown components
->spoilage
-microbial action, bacteria and fungi, some beneficial, some not
-oxidation, oxygen in air -> rancid
207
myths
independent companies bringing other bigger brands down by spreading false information
-not always to be trusted: agenda and ignorance
208
product labelling
-tells you product function
-backed up by trials and research
-legal nutritional claims
-recommended portion sizes
-no artificial colors/flavourings
208
affordability
-growing trend of people buying value food over what they thinks but
-some pet foods more expensive than human foods
-varied and nutritious foods need to be;
-available
-affordable
209
sensory analysis of pet food
-aroma
-texture
-flavour
-can be tested
210
two bowl method
-choice of 2 foods
-set length
-measures;
a) intake ration
b) consumption ratio
c) first choice
d) preference
e) first approach
211
two bowl method variations
number of pet participants
environment
feeding length
normal diet
breed
region
electronic systems
212
two bowl method problems
mostly for dogs
satiety/huner
over-eating
anticipated withdrawal
voracious/unselective
individual variation
lateral bias
213
cat behaviour during feeding
-bowl licking, stretching; satisfied by meal
-latency time; low motivation to eat
-change of posture, head up; low interest in meal
-food sniffing; hesitant to eat
214
cognitive palatability assessment
-train animal to tell you what they prefer
-electrophysiology: measure what happens to animal physiological
-RFID; electronic tags you can trace back
