lesson 2 evolution and psych methods Flashcards
three ingredients for darwinian natural selection
differential reproduction: a process of favoring survival and reproduction of the fittest individuals in a population; individuals with favorable characteristics have a more competitive advantage and are more likely to pass their genes on to the next generation.
variation (mutation and sexual reproduction): no two individuals are exactly alike (not even those we call ‘identical’ twins). Those with advantageous characters have a greater probability of survival, and therefore of reproducing, in the struggle for existence
inheritance of traits: Provided that the advantageous characters that promote survival are inherited by offspring, individuals possessing those characters will become more common in the population over successive generations because they are more likely than individuals not possessing those characters to survive and produce offspring in the next generation.
natural selection
mechanism of evolution that drives biological diversity
evolution
change over time
why does natural selection have high intertia
our brains are basic ape/primate/mammalian/vertebrate brains
how has natural selection optimized us to meet ancestral challenges
our mental traits are often mismatched to modern environments (scared of snakes instead of outlet because our ancestors were scared of snakes, but more likely to die from electrical shock)
what constraints does natural selection have
there’s always a tradeoff; can’t be genius and physically better (like how we have best brains but weak bodies)
what problem does natural selection try to solve
High caloric density of donuts good (like ancestors) and low caloric density of veggies bad, but we have different environments now
pitfalls of evolutionary thinking
1) thinking because some behavior is influenced by evolution it’s inevitable (deterministic fallacy)
2) thinking that because a feature of human behavior is natural it’s right (naturalistic fallacy: evolution is mechanical and provides no moral or ethical guide to life, instead our culture does)
3) we tend to think that evolution is directional and ends with us (like picture of monkey evolution to us)
what do we find attractive?
things that we’re used to (bilateral symmetry, typicality)
why are humans born 3 months early
to accommodate our huge heads
what is jealousy and how it differs in men vs women
a sign that reproductive success is threatened (men worry about raising someone else’s kid, women worry about kid losing a father and resource)
why is attraction and picking the right partner so important
humans have to heavily invest in their offspring so we need to make sure we choose the right person/resource
naturalistic fallacy
attempting to define values as what is natural or not: appeals to how things are done by non-human animals or by groups of humans that we would consider to be “primitive,” and certainly outside of our own tradition (like breastfeeding natural but bottle formula wrong)
deterministic fallacy
The mistaken assertion that genes control behaviour in a manner independent of environmental influences- the belief that all human behaviors flow from genetic or environmental factors that, once they have occurred, are very difficult or impossible to change
critique of determinism
Numerous scientists and political organizations have criticized determinism, claiming that it is scientifically inaccurate and serves to uphold societal norms.
Many scientists now argue that the nature versus nurture debate is dead and that personality is really determined by a combination of nature and nurture. They point out that no single factor can affect human development and that biological determinism is an overly simplistic philosophy. Many scientists also believe that behaviorism—which argues for the primacy of the environment—is also overly simplistic.
The belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation is the definition of
empiricism
Which of the following is the best definition of a hypothesis?
a falsifiable prediction
If a detector is used to measure the same property twice but produces different measurements, then it
lacks
reliability
If a detector is used to measure the same property twice but produces different measurements, then it
lacks
reliability
Which of the following describes the average value of all the measurements in a particular
distribution
mean
What does the sign of r (the correlation coefficient) show
the direction of a correlation
When two variables are correlated, what keeps us from concluding that one is the cause and the
other is the effect
the third-variable problem
A researcher administers a questionnaire concerning attitudes toward tax increases to people of all
genders and ages who live all across the United States. The dependent variable in the study is the
of the participants
attitude
An experiment that defines variables as they are defined in the real world is
externally valid
When people find evidence that confirms their beliefs, they often
stop looking
type 1 vs type 2 error
A type I error (false-positive) occurs if an investigator rejects a null hypothesis that is actually true in the population; a type II error (false-negative) occurs if the investigator fails to reject a null hypothesis that is actually false in the population
hypothesis (should statement)
falsifiable prediction made by a theory (some theories dont tell us what we should observe if the theory is true, so we cant use the scientific method of observation to make sure it’s right)
theories
hypothetical explanations of natural phenomena
makes specific predictions about what we should
observe in the world if the theory is true
demand characteristics
where people behave as they think someone expects them to
naturalistic observation
way to avoid demand characteristics; gathering scientific information by observing people in natural environments
why isnt naturalistic observation practical
some events dont occur naturally, and some things can only be observed through direct interaction
scientific method/baconian method
using empirical evidence (observation) to establish facts
when naturalistic observation isnt possible what can psychologists do
make things anonymous, keep people unaware of true study, measure behaviors that are not under a person’s voluntary control like pupil dilation
observer bias
expectations influence what you observe (why blind studies are used)
two kinds of description
graphic (numbers) and descriptive (words that describe central tendency and words that describe variability)
what things color our views of evidence
beliefs, preferences, prejudices, ambitions, aversions etc (we see what we want to see, and only consider evidence that makes sense to us)
ethical code rules
informed consent, no coercion, protection from harm, risk benefit analysis, deception, debriefing, confidentiality, respecting animals and respecting truth
correlation vs causation
correlation says two properties are related, causation says one causes the other
What does measurement require?
Define the property (with construct validity) and a method to detect property (instrument with reliability and power)
Unbiased division across groups to normalize all characteristics. We want <5% chance that randomness failed
What is random assignment?
operational definition
a description of a property in measurable terms
Construct validity
the extent to which the thing being measured adequately characterizes the property
which refers to a detector’s
ability to detect the presence of differences or changes in the magnitude of a property
power
reliability
refers to a detector’s ability to detect the absence of differences or changes in the magnitude of a property
Observer bias
the tendency for
observers’ expectations to influence both what they believe they observed and what they actually observed
the double-blind study
a study in which neither the researcher nor the participant knows how the participants are
expected to behave
what are the three main central tendencies
mean (average) median (middle) mode (most times appeared)
how do psychologists avoid observer bias
double blind study (neither scientist nor participant know true purpose)
3 main parts of evolution
high inertia, meeting ancestral challenges, works under constraints
why are humans born 3 months early
to accomodate huge heads
data surrounding attraction and partner selection in men vs women
women tend to consider status to be more important (63%) while men consider good looks more (84%)
data surrounding jealousy in men vs women
women tend to be more upset by their partners forming an emotional bond with someone else (77%) while men are more angry about physical aspect (78%)… perhaps why men more prone to violent killings like guns and women more prone to emotional like poison
jealousy surrounding reproductive success
men worry about raising someone else’s offspring (jealousy) while women worry about losing resources for their offspring (father figure)
what did liebermann say is replacing lower mortality rates
higher morbidity from ill health; we die slower but middle aged and older people are suffering from chronic noninfectious diseases due to ill diet and no exercise
what does liebermann say human bodies are adapted for
three main facets of natural selection
phenotype based on environment and genes expressed
adapted to obesity for fertility
adapted to walk and run but cant climb or sprint fast
humans adapted to reproduce
