LESSON 1 - PRELIM Flashcards
The study of chromosomes which are the visible
carriers of the hereditary material
Cytogenetics
study of cells
Cytology
study of inherited variation
Genetic
study of transmission of traits and biological
information between generations
Heredity
are simply differences in genetic sequence
Variation
the set of genes in its DNA
responsible for a particular trait
o Genetic material, genetic make-up
Genotype
the physical expression of those genes
o Whatever is your genotype, it will be
expressed in a form of phenotype
Phenotype
Examples of Genetic Variation
- Domesticated species
- Human genetics
- Natural populations
o Dogs, cats
o Observable difference in color, fur and size
- Domesticated species
o Variation in skin color, height, eye color
- Human genetics
o However, in the natural population, genetic
composition of a population gene pool may
change over time because of evolution
- Natural populations
Three (3) primary sources of genetic variation
Mutations
Gene flow
Sex
- Changes in DNA
- Single mutation can have large effect
- However, evolutionary change is based on the
accumulation of many mutation
Mutations
- Any movement of genes from one population to
another - Important source of genetic variation
Gene flow
- Can introduce new gene combinations into a
population - Important source of genetic variation
- Sex-linked characteristics
Sex
The Cell contains a nucleus where the genetic
material is located _________
chromosome
_________ is packaged into a threadlike structure of chromosome
DNA molecule
____________ a tightly coiled compactly
dense structure inside the nucleus; each
chromosome is made of DNA tightly coiled
many times around proteins called histones
(forming nucleosome, undergoing
condensation, forming chromatin, after
further condensation, forms chromosomes)
Chromosome
________ is made of a very long strand of DNA
and contains many genes (hundreds to thousands)
Chromosome
________ basic physical unit of inheritance
Gene
___________ is the molecule that is the hereditary
material of all living cells (composed of
nucleotides)
DNA
________ basic building block of nucleic acids
Nucleotides
Nucleotides consists of:
Sugar molecule – ribose
(RNA) and deoxyribose
(DNA)
Attached to a phosphate
group
Nitrogen-containing base
- Genes are made up of DNA (One gene =
one prote
HISTORY OF GENETICS
(5)
Children resemble their parents
Domestication of animals and plants, selective
breeding for good characteristics
Sumerian horse breeding records
o Egyptian data palm breeding
o Bible and hemophilia
Three (3) major events in the mid-1800’s led
directly to the development of modern genetics.
o The Origin of Species (Charles Darwin)
o Experiments in Plant Hybridization (Gregor
Mendel – father of modern genetics)
o Isolation of Nucleic Acid (Miescher)
__________ published The Origin of Species, which describes
theory of evolution by natural selection
1859: Charles Darwin
________ This theory requires heredity to work
The Origin of Species
Theory of Evolution of Origin of Species
based on the idea that all
species are related but gradually change over
time.
Evolution happens by natural selection
Natural Selection
o Evolution is related to genetic variation:
Evolution relies on their being genetic variation
in a population which affects physical
characteristics of organism
The Origin of Species
________ More fit in the environment, mas better chance of
surviving
Survival of the fittest (Herbert Spencer)
Natural Selection in Action: _________
The Peppered Moth
Give me the 4 Types of Evolution
Convergent Evolution
Divergent Evolution
Parallel Evolution
Coevolution
_________ Takes place when species of different
ancestry begin to share analogous traits
because of a shared environment or other
selection pressure
Convergent Evolution
Example of convergent evolution
EX. Bats, Birds and Butterflies
have wings (analogous structure)
which is used to fly but they differ
on the developmental and
anatomical feature.
EX. Sharks (fish), ichthyosaurs
(Reptile), and cetaceans (mammal)
have fins
- In which two species gradually become
increasingly different - This often occurs when closely relates
species diversify to new habitats
Divergent Evolution
__________different ancestry but
shares the same analogous trait
because they stay in the same
environment; Divergent: closely
related species become different
because of the difference in
environment
Convergent
example of divergent
EX. Humans and Apes
EX. Finches on the Galapagos
Islands – different shapes of beaks
to take advantage of the different
kinds of food on different islands.
- Occurs when 2 independent but similar
species evolve in the same direction and
thus independently acquire similar
characteristics
Parallel Evolution
Example of Parallel evolution
Ex. Flying Frog
Occurs when closely interacting species
exert selective pressures on each other, so
they evolve together in a kind of
conversation of adaptations
Coevolution
Common
lineage of monkey and humans (common ape
ancestor with chimpanzees)
Origin of Humans according to evolution:
Published Experiments in Plant Hybridization,
which lays out the basic theory of genetics
o It is widely ignored until 1900
o Rediscovered by other scientists
- Father of Modern Genetics
1866: Gregor Johann Mendel (Austrian monk)
Isolated “nucleic acid” from pus cells
Isolation of nucleic acids
1869: Friedrich Miescher (Swiss physician)
o Used to be called “Nuclein” (nucleus of the
WBC)
o Neither a protein, carbohydrate, nor lipid,
thus it was a novel type of biological
molecule
o After further study, it was found that
Nuclein was acidic
Isolation of Nucleic acid
_________ coined the word “nucleic acid”
Richard Altmann
_______ proved that
the genetic material is indeed located in the nucleus
- DNA is located in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells
1871: The experiments of Ernst Haeckel
Major Events in the 20th Century
1900
1902
1904
1910
1910
1918
Major Events in the 20th Century
__________ rediscovery of Mendel’s work by Robert Correns,
Hugo de Vries, and Erich von Tschermak
1900
In 1900 rediscovery of Mendel’s work by _____, ______, _______
Robert Correns,
Hugo de Vries, and Erich von Tschermak
In ________, _________discovered that alkaptonuria, a
human disease, has a genetic basis.
In 1902: Archibald Garrod
In ________, _________ discovered linkage between
genes. Also coins the word “genetics”
In 1904: William Bateson
“genno” greek word; ____________
to give birth
In ________ : ____ and _______ discovered the science of genetic linkage.
1910: A year after, together with Reginald Punnett and
Bateson
They also coined the term “epistasis” (genetic
linkage) to describe the interaction between two
different traits
Reginald Punnett and Bateson
interaction between genes that
influences a phenotype
Epistasis
________ proved that genes are
located on the chromosomes (using Drosophila)
In 1910: Thomas Hunt Morgan
Subject: Fruit Fly
- Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance: Genes are
located on the chromosomes like beads of strings
- Some genes are linked (on the same chromosome)
and always inherited together
- Eye color of fruit flies are sex-linked (Female – red
eye; Male – white eye)
1910: Thomas Hunt Morgan
began the study of
quantitative genetics by partitioning phenotypic
variance into a genetic and an environmental
component
1918: Ronald Aylmer Fisher
- Used mathematics to combine Mendelian genetics
and Natural Selection - Contributed to the revival of Darwinism in the early
20th century revision of the Theory of Evolution - Known as “Modern Synthesis” (Revived Darwin’s
study combined with Mendel’s) - Used Quantitative Genetics
1918: Ronald Aylmer Fisher
In _____, _________ shows that x-rays induce
mutations.
- Radiation is capable of mutating gene
In 1926, Hermann J. Muller
In ____, ______ transformation and mice
- Used Streptococcus pneumonia (caused
Pneumonia)
1928: Frederick Griffith
show that DNA can transform bacteria,
demonstrating that DNA is the hereditary material.
1944: Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn
McCarty
Give me the 2 type of strains (Clue: Food Chain na barato)
: S Strain
and R Strain
Virulent: can cause disease
S strain
(Non virulent: cant cause disease
R strain
In _____, _________ is capable of mutating gene
In 1926, Radiation
This experiment proved that DNA is a genetic
material
In 1928 Frederick Griffith used streptococcus pneumonia
In ________
Remove lipids and carbs (they may affect the
results), leaving protein, RNA and DNA
Aliquoted into 3 set-ups
In 1944
- Proteinases (No protein)
- Ribonuclease (No RNA)
- Deoxyribonuclease (No DNA)
3rd step: S Cells appeared on the 1st and 2nd set up
but not on the 3rd
o Because of the absence of DNA
Transformation cant occur unless _______
is present. _______ must be the hereditary material.
DNA
In_________, __________Martha Chase, DNA is not a protein
In 1952, Alfred Hershey
2 Bacteriophages
- Sulfur labeled protein capsule (sulfur is present
in proteins, not in DNA) - Phosphorus labeled DNA (present in DNA, not
in proteins)
used a technique called x-ray
crystallography, it revealed
the helical shape of the DNA
molecule
1952: Rosalind Franklin
determine the structure of the DNA molecule,
which leads directly to knowledge of how it replicates
1953: James Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice
Wilkins
Recognized as the one who discovered the
secondary structure of DNA __________
Double helix
DNA
replication details
Mid 1958: Matthew Meselson-Franklin Stahl
solves the genetic code,
showing that 3 DNA bases code for one amino acid
1966: Marshall Nirenberg
- 64 possible codons
- 3 do not code for amino acids (Stop codons: UAA,
UAG, UGA) - Start codon: AUG
1966: Marshall Nirenberg
First to prove the double
helix structure of DNA
(however, she wasn’t the
one who received the
noble prize)
1952: Rosalind Franklin
: the independent and simultaneous discovery of
reverse transcriptase in retroviruses (then RNA tumor
viruses)
1970: David Baltimore and Howard Temin
_________ an enzyme found in
retroviruses, was discovered and was used in cloning
genes
1970: Reverse transcriptase
_________ combine DNA
from two different species in vitro, then transform it into
bacterial cells: first DNA cloning
1972: Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer
Introduced the process of sequencing the genome
(set of genes of an organism) of a bacteriophage.
- Later, scientists have done it in other organisms as
well
1977: Scientist Frederick Sanger
Invented the process called Polymerase Chain
Reaction (PCR)
1983: Kary Mullis
In ______, __________was started
GOAL: To sequence and map the genome
(collection of all the genes) of man
1990: The Human Genome Project
- They have successfully cloned Dolly the sheep
- Dolly was the first mammal to be cloned from an
adult cell.
1996: Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell
Sequence of the entire human genome is
announced
2003
total set
of genes in a
particular
organism
Genom
o Cell division in somatic cells (non germ cell)
o Muscle, White blood cells
Mitosis
o Cell division in developing germ cell in the
ovary and the testis
Meiosis
Daughter cells has the same number of
chromosome with the parent cell
o Nonreductional mitosis
As meiosis goes on, number of
chromosome is reduced into half
(diploid to haploid)
Reductional
o Assignment of genes to specific locations
on a chromosome
o Map locations of different genes which calls
for different traits in a particular
chromosome
Chromosomal Mapping
o A non-mendelian pattern of inheritance
governed by the DNA present in the
cytoplasm
o Outside the
nucleus
o Mitochondrial
inheritance
Extrachromosomal inheritance (extranuclear
inheritance)
o The establishment of the sex of an
organism
Sex determination
o The phenotypic expression of an allele
related top chromosomal sex of an
individual
o Association between genes in sex
chromosomes such that the characteristics
determined by these genes appear
Sex linkage
o Focuses on the chromosomes and the
conditions/abnormalities associated with
chromosomes.
Cytogenetics
based on the Central Dogma of
Molecular Genetics
Molecular Genetics
DNA
o Structure - SCRMR
o Chemistry
o Replication
o Mutation
o Repair
copying DNA to mRNA
Transcription
mRNA will be transported to
the ribosome for protein synthesis
Translation
o Process of controlling which genes in a
cell’s DNA are expressed (used to make a
functional product such as protein)
Control of Gene Expression (Gene expression
regulation)
___________ is a molecular biology technique
that makes many identical copies of DNA such as a
gene
DNA Cloning
(based on the theory of
National Selection proposed by Darwin)
Evolutionary Genetics
(based on Mendel’s 1st and 2nd
laws)
Classical Genetics
The genetic variation in a population will
remain constant from one generation to the
next in the absence of disturbing factors
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Study of the genetic bases underlying
phenotypic variation among individuals
Quantitative Genetics (R.A Fisher)
o The study of genetic variation within
populations
Population Genetics
This type of genetic involves the
examination and modelling of
changes in the frequencies of
genes and alleles in a population
over space and time
Population Genetics
the change in the characteristics of a
species over several generations and relies on the
process of natural selection
Evolution
_______ only those with best
characteristics who can adapt to the
environment can survive and pass his/her
characteristic from one generation to
another
This theory of evolution is based on the
idea that all species are related and
gradually change over time
Natural selection
evolutionary process by which
populations evolve to become distinct species
Speciation
Example Speciation
Ex. Finch Bird from Galapagos Island
(same characteristics, but this species of
birds went to different environment, and
they need to adapt to survive) = changes in
beak
Another example kay mga migrate
Divergent evolution
