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CYTOGENETICS - SECOND SEM > LESSON 1 - PRELIM > Flashcards

LESSON 1 - PRELIM Flashcards

1
Q

The study of chromosomes which are the visible
carriers of the hereditary material

A

Cytogenetics

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2
Q

study of cells

A

Cytology

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3
Q

study of inherited variation

A

Genetic

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4
Q

study of transmission of traits and biological
information between generations

A

Heredity

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5
Q

are simply differences in genetic sequence

A

Variation

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6
Q

the set of genes in its DNA
responsible for a particular trait

o Genetic material, genetic make-up

A

Genotype

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7
Q

the physical expression of those genes

o Whatever is your genotype, it will be
expressed in a form of phenotype

A

Phenotype

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8
Q

Examples of Genetic Variation

A
  1. Domesticated species
  2. Human genetics
  3. Natural populations
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9
Q

o Dogs, cats
o Observable difference in color, fur and size

A
  1. Domesticated species
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10
Q

o Variation in skin color, height, eye color

A
  1. Human genetics
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11
Q

o However, in the natural population, genetic
composition of a population gene pool may
change over time because of evolution

A
  1. Natural populations
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12
Q

Three (3) primary sources of genetic variation

A

Mutations
Gene flow
Sex

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13
Q
  • Changes in DNA
  • Single mutation can have large effect
  • However, evolutionary change is based on the
    accumulation of many mutation
A

Mutations

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14
Q
  • Any movement of genes from one population to
    another
  • Important source of genetic variation
A

Gene flow

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15
Q
  • Can introduce new gene combinations into a
    population
  • Important source of genetic variation
  • Sex-linked characteristics
A

Sex

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16
Q

The Cell contains a nucleus where the genetic
material is located _________

A

chromosome

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17
Q

_________ is packaged into a threadlike structure of chromosome

A

DNA molecule

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18
Q

____________ a tightly coiled compactly
dense structure inside the nucleus; each
chromosome is made of DNA tightly coiled
many times around proteins called histones
(forming nucleosome, undergoing
condensation, forming chromatin, after
further condensation, forms chromosomes)

A

Chromosome

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19
Q

________ is made of a very long strand of DNA
and contains many genes (hundreds to thousands)

A

Chromosome

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20
Q

________ basic physical unit of inheritance

A

Gene

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21
Q

___________ is the molecule that is the hereditary
material of all living cells (composed of
nucleotides)

A

DNA

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22
Q

________ basic building block of nucleic acids

A

Nucleotides

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23
Q

Nucleotides consists of:

A

Sugar molecule – ribose
(RNA) and deoxyribose
(DNA)
 Attached to a phosphate
group
 Nitrogen-containing base
- Genes are made up of DNA (One gene =
one prote

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24
Q

HISTORY OF GENETICS
(5)

A

Children resemble their parents

Domestication of animals and plants, selective
breeding for good characteristics

Sumerian horse breeding records

o Egyptian data palm breeding

o Bible and hemophilia

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25
Q

Three (3) major events in the mid-1800’s led
directly to the development of modern genetics.

A

o The Origin of Species (Charles Darwin)
o Experiments in Plant Hybridization (Gregor
Mendel – father of modern genetics)
o Isolation of Nucleic Acid (Miescher)

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26
Q

__________ published The Origin of Species, which describes
theory of evolution by natural selection

A

1859: Charles Darwin

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27
Q

________ This theory requires heredity to work

A

The Origin of Species

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28
Q

Theory of Evolution of Origin of Species

A

based on the idea that all
species are related but gradually change over
time.

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29
Q

Evolution happens by natural selection

A

Natural Selection

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30
Q

o Evolution is related to genetic variation:
Evolution relies on their being genetic variation
in a population which affects physical
characteristics of organism

A

The Origin of Species

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31
Q

________ More fit in the environment, mas better chance of
surviving

A

Survival of the fittest (Herbert Spencer)

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32
Q

Natural Selection in Action: _________

A

The Peppered Moth

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33
Q

Give me the 4 Types of Evolution

A

Convergent Evolution
Divergent Evolution
Parallel Evolution
Coevolution

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34
Q

_________ Takes place when species of different
ancestry begin to share analogous traits
because of a shared environment or other
selection pressure

A

Convergent Evolution

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35
Q

Example of convergent evolution

A

 EX. Bats, Birds and Butterflies
have wings (analogous structure)
which is used to fly but they differ
on the developmental and
anatomical feature.
 EX. Sharks (fish), ichthyosaurs
(Reptile), and cetaceans (mammal)
have fins

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36
Q
  • In which two species gradually become
    increasingly different
  • This often occurs when closely relates
    species diversify to new habitats
A

Divergent Evolution

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37
Q

__________different ancestry but
shares the same analogous trait
because they stay in the same
environment; Divergent: closely
related species become different
because of the difference in
environment

A

Convergent

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38
Q

example of divergent

A

 EX. Humans and Apes
 EX. Finches on the Galapagos
Islands – different shapes of beaks
to take advantage of the different
kinds of food on different islands.

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39
Q
  • Occurs when 2 independent but similar
    species evolve in the same direction and
    thus independently acquire similar
    characteristics
A

Parallel Evolution

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40
Q

Example of Parallel evolution

A

Ex. Flying Frog

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41
Q

Occurs when closely interacting species
exert selective pressures on each other, so
they evolve together in a kind of
conversation of adaptations

A

Coevolution

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42
Q

Common
lineage of monkey and humans (common ape
ancestor with chimpanzees)

A

Origin of Humans according to evolution:

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43
Q

Published Experiments in Plant Hybridization,
which lays out the basic theory of genetics

o It is widely ignored until 1900
o Rediscovered by other scientists
- Father of Modern Genetics

A

1866: Gregor Johann Mendel (Austrian monk)

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44
Q

Isolated “nucleic acid” from pus cells

Isolation of nucleic acids

A

1869: Friedrich Miescher (Swiss physician)

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45
Q

o Used to be called “Nuclein” (nucleus of the
WBC)
o Neither a protein, carbohydrate, nor lipid,
thus it was a novel type of biological
molecule
o After further study, it was found that
Nuclein was acidic

A

Isolation of Nucleic acid

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46
Q

_________ coined the word “nucleic acid”

A

Richard Altmann

47
Q

_______ proved that
the genetic material is indeed located in the nucleus
- DNA is located in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells

A

 1871: The experiments of Ernst Haeckel

48
Q

Major Events in the 20th Century

A

1900
1902
1904
1910
1910
1918

49
Q

Major Events in the 20th Century

__________ rediscovery of Mendel’s work by Robert Correns,
Hugo de Vries, and Erich von Tschermak

A

1900

50
Q

In 1900 rediscovery of Mendel’s work by _____, ______, _______

A

Robert Correns,
Hugo de Vries, and Erich von Tschermak

51
Q

In ________, _________discovered that alkaptonuria, a
human disease, has a genetic basis.

A

In 1902: Archibald Garrod

52
Q

In ________, _________ discovered linkage between
genes. Also coins the word “genetics”

A

In 1904: William Bateson

53
Q

“genno” greek word; ____________

A

to give birth

54
Q

In ________ : ____ and _______ discovered the science of genetic linkage.

A

1910: A year after, together with Reginald Punnett and
Bateson

55
Q

They also coined the term “epistasis” (genetic
linkage) to describe the interaction between two
different traits

A

Reginald Punnett and Bateson

56
Q

interaction between genes that
influences a phenotype

A

Epistasis

57
Q

________ proved that genes are
located on the chromosomes (using Drosophila)

A

In 1910: Thomas Hunt Morgan

58
Q

Subject: Fruit Fly
- Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance: Genes are
located on the chromosomes like beads of strings
- Some genes are linked (on the same chromosome)
and always inherited together
- Eye color of fruit flies are sex-linked (Female – red
eye; Male – white eye)

A

1910: Thomas Hunt Morgan

59
Q

began the study of
quantitative genetics by partitioning phenotypic
variance into a genetic and an environmental
component

A

1918: Ronald Aylmer Fisher

60
Q
  • Used mathematics to combine Mendelian genetics
    and Natural Selection
  • Contributed to the revival of Darwinism in the early
    20th century revision of the Theory of Evolution
  • Known as “Modern Synthesis” (Revived Darwin’s
    study combined with Mendel’s)
  • Used Quantitative Genetics
A

1918: Ronald Aylmer Fisher

61
Q

In _____, _________ shows that x-rays induce
mutations.
- Radiation is capable of mutating gene

A

In 1926, Hermann J. Muller

62
Q

In ____, ______ transformation and mice
- Used Streptococcus pneumonia (caused
Pneumonia)

A

1928: Frederick Griffith

63
Q

show that DNA can transform bacteria,
demonstrating that DNA is the hereditary material.

A

1944: Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn
McCarty

64
Q

Give me the 2 type of strains (Clue: Food Chain na barato)

A

: S Strain
and R Strain

65
Q

Virulent: can cause disease

A

S strain

66
Q

(Non virulent: cant cause disease

A

R strain

67
Q

In _____, _________ is capable of mutating gene

A

In 1926, Radiation

68
Q

This experiment proved that DNA is a genetic
material

A

In 1928 Frederick Griffith used streptococcus pneumonia

69
Q

In ________
Remove lipids and carbs (they may affect the
results), leaving protein, RNA and DNA

Aliquoted into 3 set-ups

A

In 1944

  1. Proteinases (No protein)
  2. Ribonuclease (No RNA)
  3. Deoxyribonuclease (No DNA)
70
Q

3rd step: S Cells appeared on the 1st and 2nd set up
but not on the 3rd

A

o Because of the absence of DNA

71
Q

Transformation cant occur unless _______
is present. _______ must be the hereditary material.

A

DNA

72
Q

In_________, __________Martha Chase, DNA is not a protein

A

In 1952, Alfred Hershey

73
Q

2 Bacteriophages

A
  1. Sulfur labeled protein capsule (sulfur is present
    in proteins, not in DNA)
  2. Phosphorus labeled DNA (present in DNA, not
    in proteins)
74
Q

used a technique called x-ray
crystallography, it revealed
the helical shape of the DNA
molecule

A

1952: Rosalind Franklin

75
Q

determine the structure of the DNA molecule,
which leads directly to knowledge of how it replicates

A

1953: James Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice
Wilkins

76
Q

Recognized as the one who discovered the
secondary structure of DNA __________

A

Double helix

77
Q

DNA
replication details

A

Mid 1958: Matthew Meselson-Franklin Stahl

78
Q

solves the genetic code,
showing that 3 DNA bases code for one amino acid

A

1966: Marshall Nirenberg

79
Q
  • 64 possible codons
  • 3 do not code for amino acids (Stop codons: UAA,
    UAG, UGA)
  • Start codon: AUG
A

1966: Marshall Nirenberg

80
Q

First to prove the double
helix structure of DNA
(however, she wasn’t the
one who received the
noble prize)

A

1952: Rosalind Franklin

81
Q

: the independent and simultaneous discovery of
reverse transcriptase in retroviruses (then RNA tumor
viruses)

A

1970: David Baltimore and Howard Temin

82
Q

_________ an enzyme found in
retroviruses, was discovered and was used in cloning
genes

A

1970: Reverse transcriptase

83
Q

_________ combine DNA
from two different species in vitro, then transform it into
bacterial cells: first DNA cloning

A

1972: Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer

84
Q

Introduced the process of sequencing the genome
(set of genes of an organism) of a bacteriophage.
- Later, scientists have done it in other organisms as
well

A

1977: Scientist Frederick Sanger

85
Q

Invented the process called Polymerase Chain
Reaction (PCR)

A

1983: Kary Mullis

86
Q

In ______, __________was started
GOAL: To sequence and map the genome
(collection of all the genes) of man

A

1990: The Human Genome Project

87
Q
  • They have successfully cloned Dolly the sheep
  • Dolly was the first mammal to be cloned from an
    adult cell.
A

1996: Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell

88
Q

Sequence of the entire human genome is
announced

A

2003

89
Q

total set
of genes in a
particular
organism

A

Genom

90
Q

o Cell division in somatic cells (non germ cell)
o Muscle, White blood cells

A

Mitosis

91
Q

o Cell division in developing germ cell in the
ovary and the testis

A

Meiosis

92
Q

Daughter cells has the same number of
chromosome with the parent cell

A

o Nonreductional mitosis

93
Q

As meiosis goes on, number of
chromosome is reduced into half
(diploid to haploid)

A

Reductional

94
Q

o Assignment of genes to specific locations
on a chromosome

o Map locations of different genes which calls
for different traits in a particular
chromosome

A

 Chromosomal Mapping

95
Q

o A non-mendelian pattern of inheritance
governed by the DNA present in the
cytoplasm

o Outside the
nucleus

o Mitochondrial
inheritance

A

Extrachromosomal inheritance (extranuclear
inheritance)

96
Q

o The establishment of the sex of an
organism

A

Sex determination

97
Q

o The phenotypic expression of an allele
related top chromosomal sex of an
individual

o Association between genes in sex
chromosomes such that the characteristics
determined by these genes appear

A

Sex linkage

98
Q

o Focuses on the chromosomes and the
conditions/abnormalities associated with
chromosomes.

A

Cytogenetics

99
Q

based on the Central Dogma of
Molecular Genetics

A

Molecular Genetics

100
Q

DNA

A

o Structure - SCRMR
o Chemistry
o Replication
o Mutation
o Repair

101
Q

copying DNA to mRNA

A

Transcription

102
Q

mRNA will be transported to
the ribosome for protein synthesis

A

Translation

103
Q

o Process of controlling which genes in a
cell’s DNA are expressed (used to make a
functional product such as protein)

A

Control of Gene Expression (Gene expression
regulation)

104
Q

___________ is a molecular biology technique
that makes many identical copies of DNA such as a
gene

A

DNA Cloning

105
Q

(based on the theory of
National Selection proposed by Darwin)

A

Evolutionary Genetics

106
Q

(based on Mendel’s 1st and 2nd
laws)

A

Classical Genetics

107
Q

The genetic variation in a population will
remain constant from one generation to the
next in the absence of disturbing factors

A

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

108
Q

Study of the genetic bases underlying
phenotypic variation among individuals

A

Quantitative Genetics (R.A Fisher)

109
Q

o The study of genetic variation within
populations

A

Population Genetics

110
Q

This type of genetic involves the
examination and modelling of
changes in the frequencies of
genes and alleles in a population
over space and time

A

Population Genetics

111
Q

the change in the characteristics of a
species over several generations and relies on the
process of natural selection

A

Evolution

112
Q

_______ only those with best
characteristics who can adapt to the
environment can survive and pass his/her
characteristic from one generation to
another

 This theory of evolution is based on the
idea that all species are related and
gradually change over time

A

Natural selection

113
Q

evolutionary process by which
populations evolve to become distinct species

A

Speciation

114
Q

Example Speciation

A

Ex. Finch Bird from Galapagos Island
(same characteristics, but this species of
birds went to different environment, and
they need to adapt to survive) = changes in
beak

Another example kay mga migrate

Divergent evolution

CYTOGENETICS - SECOND SEM (9 decks)

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