lecture final exam Flashcards
levels of human structures from smallest to largest
atom, molecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, and organism.
a ___ by definition, is composed of two or more types of tissues.
organ
Define homeostasis
Maintenance of relatively stable internal environment despite the outside environment changing.
Define the different types of gross and microscopic anatomy
Gross anatomy: structures visible to the unaided eye.
Regional anatomy: study of all structures in a particular region of the body
Systemic anatomy: study of all structures grouped into a body system
Surface anatomy: study of internal structures based on their relation to overlying skin
Microscopic anatomy: structures visible with a microscope
Cytology: study of cells
Histology: study of tissues
Identify the 11 body systems, their main functions, and their main organs.
Skeletal: bones and joints. Protects and supports the body, blood cells are formed here and minerals are stored.
Integumentary: hair, skin, and nails. Provides protection, synthesizes vitamin D, houses sensory receptors and sweat/oil glands.
Muscular: muscles and tendons. Allows for manipulation of the environment, maintains posture, and produces heat.
Endocrine: thyroid gland, thymus, adrenal gland, pancreas, testis, ovaries, pituitary gland, pineal gland. Regulates hormones responsible for growth, reproduction, and metabolism.
Cardiovascular: heart and blood vessels. Transports blood to the body tissues, blood contains gases, nutrients, wastes, etc.
Lymphatic: thymus, lymph nodes, spleen. Houses white blood cells and fights off pathogens from the body.
Respiratory: larynx, trachea, lungs. Provides gas exchange with outside environment.
Digestive: esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, pancreas, liver, gallbladder. Breaks down ingested food into absorbable molecules for the body to use.
Urinary: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. Eliminates nitrogenous waste from the body, regulates fluid balance in the body.
Nervous: brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Control center of the body
Reproductive: penis, testes, scrotum, uterus, vagina, uterine tube, ovary. Produce offspring.
list and define characteristics needed for life.
Ingestion: eating food
Digestion: large molecules broken down to smaller molecules that can be used by the body
Absorption: molecules transported through cell membranes
Assimilation: creating larger molecules from small molecules
Respiration: cells break down food molecules and release chemical energy (in the form of ATP)
Excretion: waste products of metabolic activities of a cell that must be eliminated from the cell via diffusion
Movement: energy released from a cell assists in cell movements
Secretion: substances produced by the body to help carry out metabolic activities
Reproduction: when an organism produces more organisms of the same species
Irritability: the ability to be aware and responsive of stimuli
Egestion: the excretion of indigestible materials from the body
define and give an example of a negative feedback system.
Negative feedback response reduces or shuts off an original stimulus; example is the hormone insulin regulating blood glucose.
define and give an example of a positive feedback system.
Positive feedback response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus; example is enhancement of labor contractions by the hormone oxytocin.
In an _____ bond, the atoms completely transfer electrons from one to another.
ionic.
in a ___ bond, the atoms share electrons.
covalent
a ___ bond is weak chemical bond formed when a partially positive hydrogen atom in a molecule is attracted to a partially negative atom in another molecule. it is most easily seen between __ molecules.
hydrogen; water
What is the basic difference in the molecular structure between saturated and unsaturated fats? Give examples of saturated and unsaturated fats.
Saturated fats have carbons linked via single covalent bonds, form solids at room temperature, examples are animals fats and butter.
Unsaturated fats have carbons linked via double covalent bonds, form thick liquids at room temperature, examples are plant oils and olive oil.
What is a carbohydrate, and what are they used for? Include examples
Sugars, they are used for an energy source in the cell. Examples include glucose, fructose, starch, cellulose, glycogen, etc.
The atomic number of an element indicates the number of _____ of a specific element?
Number of protons in the nucleus.
What condition must exist for an atom to be electrically balanced?
Number of protons and electrons must be equal.
What are valence electrons? If the atomic number of potassium is 15. How many electrons are found in the valence shell of this atom in its non-ionic state?
Valence electrons are located on the outer energy shell. Potassium’s valence shell contains 5 electrons (2, 8, 5).
A _____ is an atom that has lost one or more of its electrons.
Cation
The chemical behavior of an atom is determined by the _____ in its outermost energy shell.
Electrons
What do the chemical symbols, H - H, O = O, and N ≡ N mean?
Single dash indicates single bond, two dashes indicate double bond, and three dashes indicate a triple bond.
The reaction A + B AB is an example of _____ reaction.
synthesis
The reaction AB + CD AD + CB is an example of _____ reaction.
exchange
Monosaccharides joining together to make a disaccharide is a good example of a _____ reaction.
synthesis
What takes place in a dehydration synthesis reaction? hydrolysis reaction? What happens to water in each of the reactions?
Dehydration synthesis is when two monomers are joined together by the removal of water. Hydrolysis reaction breaks down a polymer into monomers by adding water.
“Animal starch” that is stored in the liver and muscles are in the form of _____.
cholesterol
Why are proteins so important to human physiology? What is a polypeptide?
Involved in almost all cellular activities due to variable structure. An amino acid is the monomer of proteins, and a polypeptide is a chain of more than 100 amino acids.
Adding acid tends to _____ the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.
increase
Tell whether the following solutions are considered an acid or a base: pH of 9, pH of 2, pH of 7, pH of 8, pH of 12, pH of 7.4
pH of 7 is neutral. Anything towards 1 is acidic, anything towards 14 is alkaline (basic).
Phospholipid molecules in a cell membrane are arranged with their _____ tails on the interior and their _____ heads on the exterior.
Hydrophobic; hydrophilic.
Define and understand hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions.
Hypertonic is a high concentration of solutes. Hypotonic is a low concentration of solutes, and isotonic is an equal concentration of solutes.
In osmosis, water always moves toward the _____ solution, that is, toward the solution with the greater solute concentration.
hypertonic
You open a bottle of perfume in your bedroom and forget to place the lid back onto the bottle. A few hours later, you notice the smell of the perfume has spread throughout the house. This resulted from _____.
diffusion
define osmosis
the process of a solvent moving across a cell membrane (usually water).
what are types of diffusion, and how are they different?
Simple diffusion is when substances move across a concentration gradient, from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. Facilitated diffusion is when large substances need assistance to cross a cell membrane via a carrier molecule or transport protein; generally move against the concentration gradient, from areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration.
Active transport requires _____, while passive transport does not.
energy (atp).
Describe the function of a sodium-potassium pump, where you would find one, and which ions are involved.
Allows sodium and potassium to move against the concentration gradient to reset resting membrane potential; 3 sodium molecules move out of the cell for every 2 potassium molecules that move into the cell.
The process of a cell engulfing a large particle and bringing it into itself via a vesicle is called _____.
phagocytosis
Many gland cells release their secretions by means of _____, a process somewhat like reverse pinocytosis.
exocytosis
Which RNA is responsible for bringing the amino acids to the ribosome for protein formation?
tRNA (transfer)
Describe the relationships between guanine, cytosine, adenine, thymine, and uracil. Which ones are associated with DNA? And with RNA?
For DNA, guanine pairs with cytosine and adenine pairs with thymine. For RNA, guanine pairs with cytosine and uracil pairs with adenine.
What is the role of Messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA in protein synthesis?
mRNA sends a message about what enzymes are needed, tRNA brings the enzymes needed for building, and rRNA synthesizes the protein.
give the function for the following organelles:
nucleus: control center of the cell; contains DNA.
smooth endoplasmic reticulum: lacks ribosomes; produces lipids and hormones, processes carbohydrates, modifies toxic chemicals, and stores calcium ions.
rough endoplasmic reticulum: ribosomes located on surface; synthesizes proteins that will be secreted from the cell.
mitochondria: site of cellular respiration that takes food molecules and transforms them into energy the cell can use.
golgi apparatus: package, sort, and modify cellular molecules for transport inside and outside of the cell.
lysosome: small sacs that contain digestive enzymes to break down organic polymers (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins). They can rupture when the enzymes are needed for the cell, which gives them the nickname “suicide sacs”.
ribosome: site of protein synthesis
peroxisome: break down toxic substances.
cell membrane: selectively permeable membrane that allows certain molecules to enter/exit the cell.
define mitosis
Cell division to form two identical daughter cells.
Describe the processes occurring during interphase
Basic metabolic functions, DNA replication, and prepares for division.
describe the processes occurring during each phase of mitosis.
Prophase: nuclear envelope fragments, nucleolus disappears, chromatin condenses to form chromosomes
Metaphase: chromosomes cluster at the middle of the cell along the metaphase plate
Anaphase: replicated chromosomes split apart and are pulled towards the poles
Telophase: two daughter cells pinch off from each other, nuclear envelope reforms and nucleolus reappears.
What is cytokinesis, and when does it occur?
Division of the cell parts except for the nucleus, starts in late anaphase and continues through telophase.
