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Anatomy > Lecture Exam 4 > Flashcards

Lecture Exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the main functions of the nervous system?

A
  • Sensory input allows us to detect changes in our environment(sight, hearing, pain)
  • Integration of signal resulting in response via motor output
  • Our nervous system allows us to maintain homeostasis by responding to internal and external changes
  • Allows for fluid and coordinated movements
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2
Q

How is the nervous system divided into functional classes?

A

Functional classes:
- Sensory input(afferent) is the information we observe (sight)
- Almost always end in brain or spinal cord
- Integration is the processing of input information
- Always end in CNS. Process and decide on input. 99% of all neurons
- Motor output (efferent) is how we respond to the input
- End on effector cells (skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands)

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3
Q

What are the two divisions of the nervous system?

A

Central Nervous System - Comprised of brain and spinal cord. Serves as main processing center for nervous system

Peripheral Nervous System - All nerves outside of the CNS broken down into two categories
- Somatic nervous system - Voluntary skeletal muscle movement
- Autonomic nervous system - Involuntary functions (breathing, heart rate, digestion)

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4
Q

Describe the structural classes of neurons (3).

A

Multipolar:
- Most common in CNS
- Contain 2 or more dendrites
- Found in motor neurons or interneurons

Bipolar:
- One axon, one dendrite
- Ex. Olfactory cells, retina, ear
- Found in sensory neurons

Unipolar (pseudounipolar):
- Single process from soma
- Transmits sensory info from periphery to CNS
- Found in sensory ganglia such as dorsal root ganglia (respond to pain and temp)

(Image shows neurons in order)

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5
Q

What do neuroglia do? What are the types (6)?

A

Neuroglia support the cells of the CNS
Astrocyte - abundant, glutamate uptake from synapse, ion control
Microglia - least abundant, engulf dead neurons and invading microorganisms
Ependymal cells - circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and line the CSF cavity
Oligodendrocytes - myelin sheath
Neuroglia support of the PNS
Satellite cells - surround cell bodies in ganglia
Schwann cells - form myelin sheath

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6
Q

Compare somatic and visceral sensory. Compare somatic and visceral motors.

A

Somatic - Skeletal muscle, skin, and bones
Visceral - Anything found in a ventral body cavity

Somatic Sensory:
- Carries info from your skin to your brain
Somatic Motor:
- Stimulates skeletal muscle tissue
Visceral Sensory:
- Carries info such as feeling hunger
Visceral Motor:
- Autonomic

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7
Q

Identify the parts of a typical neuron and their functions.

A

Nucleus
Cell body/Soma - Aids integration of incoming signal
Dendrites - Receives incoming signal
Axon hillock - Integration where action potential is generated
Axon - Transmits electrical impulse away from soma
Schwann cell - Forms myelin sheath around peripheral nervous system facilitating faster conduction
Node of Ranvier - Gaps in myelin sheath allowing for saltatory conduction
Axon terminal - Releases neurotransmitter across the synapse (turns electrical signal into chemical signal)

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8
Q

How are electrical signals propagated and how do they travel? What is a synapse and how does the signal cross?

A
  • A signal reaches the dendrites and travels toward the axon hillock
  • Axon hillock is where the action potential is initiated and fired down the axon
  • Rapid depolarization occurs as the signal travels rapidly down the axon
  • When the signal reaches the axon terminal a neurotransmitter (ACh or glutamate) is release into the synaptic cleft
  • When the neurotransmitter reaches the other side of the synapse, the chemical signal can be converted back into an electrical signal
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9
Q

What is the difference between a neuron, nerve, tract, nucleus, and ganglia?

A

Neuron - Specialized cells that transmit nerve impulse. Fundamental unit of nervous system
Nerve - Bundle of axons (nerve fibers) that transmits signal between CNS and peripheral body. Part of PNS
Tract - Collection of axons within CNS
Nucleus - A cluster of neuron cell bodies in the CNS
Ganglia - Cluster of neuron cell bodies located in the PNS

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10
Q

Where are ependymal cells found?

A

Line the spaces in the brain and spinal cord. Central canal, lateral ventricles, 3rd and 4th ventricle

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11
Q

What is found in white matter? What is found in grey matter?

A

White matter:
- Myelinated axons
- Oligodendrocytes

Grey matter:
- Unmyelinated axons
- Neuronal bodies
- Dendrites

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12
Q

What are the effectors of efferent fibers (somatic and visceral)?

A

Somatic Efferent Fibers:
- Innervate skeletal muscle responsible for voluntary movements
Visceral Efferent Fibers:
- Innervate smooth muscle, caridac muscle, and glands. They control involuntary functions

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13
Q

What is myelin? Nodes of Ranvier? White matter?

A

Myelin - A fatty substance surrounding the axon. Acts as insulation to increase conduction speed

Nodes of Ranvier - Gaps in the myelin sheath that allow for the signal to jump from one gap to the next much faster than unmyelinated axons

White Matter - Part of the CNS made of myelinated axons. Facilitate rapid communication between brain and spinal cord

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14
Q

What are the supporting cells of the CNS and PNS? What are their roles?

A

CNS supporting cells:
Astrocyte - abundant, glutamate uptake from synapse, ion control
Microglia - least abundant, engulf dead neurons and invading microorganisms
Ependymal cells - circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and line the CSF cavity
Oligodendrocytes - myelin sheath
PNS supporting cells:
Satellite cells - surround cell bodies in ganglia
Schwann cells - form myelin sheath

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15
Q

What are the wrappings around nerves?

A

Endoneurium - Innermost layer surrounding the individual nerve fibers (axons)
Perineurium - Surrounds nerve fibers called fascicles
Epineurium - Tough connective tissue that surrounds the outermost layer of the entire nerve

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16
Q

What is an effector organ? What are specific effectors of the somatic and visceral branches of the nervous system?

A
  • An organ that responds to a stimulus from the nervous system (muscle or gland). crucial to maintaining homeostasis

Somatic effectors
- Skeletal muscle is responsible for voluntary movement
Visceral effectors
- Smooth muscle is found in organs such as intestines, bladder, blood vessels and help regulate internal processes such as digestion and blood flow
- Cardiac muscle is responsible for managing heart rate and pumping
- Glands are responsible for secreting hormones in response to autonomic signals (saliva, sweat, endocrine)

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17
Q

Compare afferent and efferent fibers.

A

Afferent:
Function: Carry sensory information from peripheral body to CNS
Direction: To CNS
Example: Skin has sensory receptors to detect pain and more

Efferent:
Functions: Carry motor commands from CNS to periphery (muscles and glands)
Direction: Away from CNS
Examples: Motor neurons that innervate skeletal muscle

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18
Q

What does somatic motor neurons control? Visceral?

A

Somatic - Controls voluntary movements and reflexes of skeletal muscle

Visceral - Regulates involuntary process of smooth muscles, glands, and cardiac muscle

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19
Q

What is a reflex arc? Is it somatic or visceral? Is it monosynaptic or polysynaptic?

A
  • A reflex arc is a neural pathway that involves a receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, and effector
  • Can be either somatic or visceral. Somatic example is touching a hot surface. Visceral example is fear causing a fight or flight response that affects autonomic nervous system
  • Can be either monsynaptic or polysynaptic. Monosynaptic example is knee-jerk reflex. Polysynaptic example is a withdraw reflex involving multiple muscles.
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20
Q

What is ipsilateral vs contralateral? What is an interneuron and where is it found?

A

Ipsilateral: response occurring on the same side of the body
Contralateral: Response occurring on opposite side of the body

  • An interneuron is a type of neuron that connects a sensory and motor neuron within the CNS
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21
Q

What is the stretch reflex?

A
  • Knee-jerk reflex
  • Sensory receptor is triggered which rapidly travels to CNS which sends a motor signal to flex a muscle
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22
Q

What is the withdraw reflex?

A
  • When you pull your hand away from a hot surface
  • Sensory receptor is triggered and travels through afferent neuron to CNS where an interneuron integrates the information. Motor signal travels (efferent) and reaches an effector organ which responds
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23
Q

What is the design of the spinal cord and brain?

A

Brain:
- Grey matter is found mostly on the surface of the brain (CORTEX) and clusters called nuclei within the brain
- Contains neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons
- Associated with higher cognitive function, sensory perception, motor control

  • White matter is found beneath grey matter
  • Contains myelinated axons giving a white color
  • Facilitates communication between brain and spinal cord

Spinal cord:
- Grey matter is found in a butterfly shape in the center of the spinal chord
- Contains neuron cell bodies, interneurons, and unmyelinated axons
- Involved in processing reflexes, sensory and motor information

  • White matter surrounds the grey matter in the spinal cord
  • Contains myelinated axons
  • Transmits signals between body and brain
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24
Q

What are the general parts of the brain and what are their embryonic origins?

A

Primary brain vesicles:
Prosencephalon
Mesencephalon
Rhombencephalon

Prosencephalon becomes:
- Cerebrum: Cerebral hemisphere
- Diencephalon: Thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus

Mesencephalon becomes:
- Brain stem: Midbrain

Rhombencephalon becomes:
- Brain stem: Pons
- Cerebellum
- Brain stem: Medulla oblongata

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25
Q

Identify these structures.

A

Hemisphere, gyri, convolutions (wrinkles), fissures

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26
Q

Identify these structures.

A

Gray and white matter, corpus callosum, cortex

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27
Q

What are gyri and sulci? What are the three main sulci? What is the pre- and post- central gyri? What is the calcarine sulcus?

A

Gyri: A raised surface on the brain
Sulci: A groove between gyri on the surface of the brain

  • Longitudinal fissure, Lateral fissure, Central fissure
  • Pre and Post central gyrus refers to the gyrus on either side of the central sulcus
  • Calcarine sulcus is the sulcus that runs medially along the occipital lobe
28
Q

What are ventricles and where are they found?

A

Prosencephalon gives rise to the lateral ventricles and third ventricle. Located at cerebral hemisphere

Mesencephalon gives rise to the cerebral aqueduct. Located at thalamus

Rhombencephalon gives rise to the fourth ventricle. Located b/t Pons and cerebellum

29
Q

What is the function of the major central lobes, basal nuclei, and diencephalon

A

Frontal lobe - Decision making, problem solving, planning, movement, and more
Parietal lobe - Pocessing sensory information
Temporal lobe - Processing auditory information
Occipital lobe - Visual processing and interpretation

Basal nuclei - Regulation of voluntary motor movement, procedural learning, and cognitive function

Diencephalon - Comprises thalamus and hypothalamus. Thalamus acts as relay station for sensory information and regulates sleep. Hypothalamus regulates homeostasis by controlling hunger, temperature and more through its link to the pituitary gland (endocrine system)

30
Q

What is the function of corpus callosum, brain stem, and cerebellum?

A

Corpus callosum - Thick band of nerve fibers that connects left and right cerebral hemispheres allowing for communication

Brain stem - Composed of midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata. Controls vital functions such as heart rate, breathing, BP. Connect communication b/t spinal cord and brain

Cerebellum - Coordinate voluntary movements, balance, and motor learning (posture and equilibrium)

31
Q

Name the brain region associated with primary visual cortex.

A

Occipital lobe

32
Q

Name the brain region associated with primary motor cortex.

A

Frontal lobe

33
Q

Name the brain region associated with primary sensory cortex.

A

Parietal lobe

34
Q

Name the brain region associated with primary auditory cortex.

A

Temporal lobe

35
Q

Name the brain region associated with relaying for all sensory info going to the cortex except smell.

A

Thalamus

36
Q

Name the brain region associated with modulation of skeletal movement(/muscle tone)in an inhibitory fashion.

A

Basal nuclei

37
Q

Name the brain region associated with overall muscle coordination that receives feedback from proprioceptors.

A

Cerebellum

38
Q

Name the brain region associated with learning and memory.

A

hippocampus and amygdala (emotional memory)

39
Q

Name the brain region containing vasomotor, cardioinhibitory, and respiratory centers.

A

Medulla oblongata

40
Q

Name the brain region associated with bridging the sensory and motor information to the cerebellum.

A

Pons

41
Q

Name the brain region associated with centers for auditory and visual reflexes.

A

Midbrain

42
Q

Name the brain region associated with regulating thirst, hunger, body temperature, and endocrines.

A

Hypothalamus

43
Q

Name the brain region associated with pyramids. What is decussation? What are the results of decussation?

A
  • Medulla oblongata
  • Decussation is what allows the right side of the brain to send motor signals to the left side of the body
44
Q

What region is affected in Parkinson’s disease?

A

Substantia Nigra

45
Q

What is the significance of the homonculus map in regards to pre and post central gyri?

A

Homonculus map shows what parts of the brain are associated with certain motor or sensory functions

Pre central gyrus:
- The map shows us that hands, fingers, and mouth occupy a large portion of the map because require fine motor skills

Post central gyrus:
- The map shows us that hands, face, and lips occupy a large portion of the map because there is a high density of receptors

46
Q

What are the components (and functions) to the limbic system?

A

Cingulate gyrus:
- Mediates emotional response -> behavioral response to emotion
Hippocampus:
- Memory and behavior links ANS (autonomic nervous system) and behavior (stress)
Amygdala:
- Process fear and memories based on emotional impact

47
Q

What are the different meninges and spaces over the CNS?

A

Meninges are protective layers of connective tissue in the CNS
Epidural space - Located outside dura mater contains fat and blood vessels
Dura mater - Thickest outer layer made of dense fibrous tissue that anchors the brain within the skull
Subdural space - Space between dura and arachnoid mater
Arachnoid mater - Middle weblike layer that houses cerebrospinal fluid
Subarachnoid space - Between arachnoid and pia mater filled with CSF
Pia mater - Thin innermost layer supplies blood to the brain and spinal cord

48
Q

What are the ventricles?

A

Lateral ventricles - Produce and circulate CSF through the intraventricular foramen
Third ventricles - Circulates CSF that contains choroid plexus
Fourth ventricles - Circulates CSF
Central canal - Circulates CSF from brain to spinal cord

49
Q

What is CSF? Where is it made? What is the pathway back to Venus blood?

A

Cerebrospinal fluid - Fluid that cushions brain and spinal cord and provides nutrients and removes waste

  • Made by the choroid plexus by ependymal cells in the ventricles of the brain. Filters blood plasma to make CSF
  • CSF made in choroid plexus in lateral ventricles -> Third ventricle -> Fourth ventricle -> Subarachnoid space of the brain and spinal cord -> absorbed into dural sinuses via arachnoid villi
50
Q

How does the meningeal dura partition the cranial cavity?

A

Falx Cerebri - Lies in the longitudinal fissure
Tentorium Cerebelli - Separates cerebellum and cerebrum
Falx Cerebelli - Separates the two hemispheres of the cerebellum

51
Q

What are the features of the spinal cord? Where does it end? What is filum terminale, caude equine, meninges, and spaces?

A
  • 31 pairs of spinal nerve that exit through intervertebral foramina
  • Spinal cord ends at the L1-L2 level, known as conus medullaris
  • Below this level is the caude equina

Filum terminale - Connective tissue that extends to tip of conus medullaris and anchors spinal cord to coccyx
Caude equine - Bundle of spinal nerve roots extending from the end of the spinal cord to the sacral region
Meninges - Three protective layers of connective tissue surrounding the brain and spinal cord
Spaces - Epidural, subdural, and subarachnoid space

52
Q

What is the conus medullaris, what is the number and level of the spinal nerves?

A

Conus medullaris - End of the spinal cord (cone shaped) occurs at L1 or L2 level

  • 31 pairs, C1-C8 = 8 pairs, T1-T12 = 12 pairs, L1-L5 = 5 pairs, 5 sacral pairs, 1 coccyx pair
53
Q

Describe the sensory and motor pathways. Compare the ascending and descending tracts, the role of the spinal cord and spinal nerves.

A
  • Sensory pathways gather sensory information from the environment. Motor pathways respond to sensory information using effectors
  • Ascending takes sensory information toward CNS. Descending takes motor information to effectors
  • The spinal cord and nerves act as a communication highway that allow sensory and motor information from all over the body to be relayed quickly in response to stimuli.
54
Q

What is the Peripheral Nervous system(PNS) and what are its basic divisions?

A
  • The ganglia located outside the CNS and connects the CNS to the rest of the body allowing communication between the brain and spine to organs muscles and sensory receptors

Sensory (afferent) division:
- Somatic sensory - Feel touch, pain, temp, pressure
- Visceral sensory - Feeling that arise from organs such as heart pain, nausea, hunger
Motor division:
- Somatic nervous system - Motor innervation of skeletal muscle
- Autonomic nervous system - innervation of involuntary muscle such as cardiac, smooth muscle, or glands
- Sympathetic - Fight or flight
- Parasympathetic - Rest and digest

55
Q

Classify the sensory receptors according to body location

A

Body location:
Exteroceptors - Sensitive to stimuli from the outside of the body, located near body surface (touch, pressure, pain, temp)
Interoceptor - Receive stimuli from internal viscera, located in digestive tube, bladder, lungs (change in chemical concentration, taste, stretching, temp)
Proprioceptors - Located in skeletal muscle, tendons, joints, ligaments, and monitor stretch and send input to CNS

56
Q

Classify the sensory receptors according to stimuli detected (6)

A

Mechanoreceptors - Respond to mechanical forces
- Touch, pressure, stretch, vibration, itch
- Baroceptors monitor BP
Thermoreceptors - Respond to temperature changes
Chemoreceptors - Respond to chemicals in solution
Photoreceptors - Respond to light (eyes)
Nociceptors - Respond to harmful stimuli resulting in pain

57
Q

What are the names and numbers of the cranial nerves (12)? Are the afferent or efferent? Are they sensory or motor?

A
58
Q

Classify sensory receptors according to structure

A

General Sensory Receptors:
- Widely distributed nerve endings monitor signals such as touch, pain, temp, and more. There is two types
- Free nerve endings
- Epithelial tactile complexes (slow adapting)
- Hair follicle receptors (rapidly adapt, ponytail)
- Encapsulated nerve endings
- Special sensory receptors encoles in CT designed to detect specific stimuli (vibrations, pressure, stretch)
- 4 types Meissner, pacinian, ruffini, and krause corpuscles

59
Q

Label the cross section of the spinal cord

A
60
Q

Where in the spinal cord are cell bodies of somatic or visceral motor neurons?

A

Somatic and visceral motor neurons are both in the ventral grey horn

61
Q

What is in the dorsal root ganglion? What fibers would be found in the dorsal root or ventral root?

A
  • A cluster of nerve cell bodies located outside the spinal cord and a part of the PNS
  • Dorsal root contains afferent fibers that carry sensory information toward CNS
  • Ventral root contains efferent fibers that carry motor signals from brain and spine to muscles and glands
62
Q

What is a plexus? Where are they found?

A
  • A collection of ventral rami from different spinal nerves that come together
  • Cervical plexus ( C1-C5)
  • Brachial plexus (C5-T1)
  • Lumbar plexus (L1-L4)
  • Sacral plexus (L4-L5)
63
Q

What are the 4 plexuses and nerves?

A
  • Cervical plexus ( C1-C5) Supply sensory and motor information to neck diaphragm and head
  • Brachial plexus (C5-T1) Supplies motor and sensory information to upper limbs
  • Lumbar plexus (L1-L4) Supplies motor and sensory information to lower abdomen and the front of the legs
  • Sacral plexus (L4-L5) Supplies motor and sensory information to the pelvis and hind legs
64
Q

What are injuries related to the plexuses

A

Brachial injuries
- Wrist drop - no extension
- Claw hand - no adduction
- Ape hand - no opposition
- Crutch paralysis
- Hand of benediction - no flexion

65
Q

What are dermatomes? How do they relate to spinal nerves? Why are they clinically important?

A
  • An area of the skin innervated by a single spinal nerve
  • Each spinal nerve pair innervates a section of the body
  • They are clinically significant because they allow health care providers to diagnose and assess nerve damage and sensory deficiency
66
Q

What are migraines? What are shingles?

A

Migraines:
- Arteries dilate and compress and irritate sensory nerve endings
Shingles:
- PNS viral infection, often brought on by stress and stems from chicken pox

Anatomy (30 decks)

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