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Anatomy > Lecture Exam 1 > Flashcards

Lecture Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the hierarchy in levels of organization- from cells to organism? What is the difference between an organelle, organ and organism? Can you list a few systems in the body?

A
  • Cells, Tissue, Organs, Organ systems, Organism
  • An organelle is a structure in a cell that carries out a specific function. An organ is tissue that works together to perform a function. An organism is something that has organ systems that allow for metabolism
  • Lymphatic system, Circulatory system, Digestive system, Nervous system, Respiratory system, Renal system.
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2
Q

Name the two major body cavities, and the divisions in each. What kind of structure is the respiratory diaphragm, and what is its relation to the body cavities?

A

Dorsal Body Cavity
- Cranial cavity
- Brain cavity
- Vertebral cavity
- Spinal cord

Ventral Body Cavity
- Thoracic Cavity
- R + L Pleural cavities contain the lungs
- Mediastinum
- Superior Mediastinum: contains blood vessels, trache, esophagus, thymus
- Inferior Mediastinum: Pericardial cavity (where the heart is located)
- Abdominopelvic Cavity
- Abdominal Cavity: contains digestive organs
- Pelvic Cavity: contains reproductive organs, rectum and bladder

The diaphragm is a divider between the abdominopelvic cavity and the thoracic body cavity. It is a sheet of muscle and fibers that are shaped like an umbrella

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3
Q

Be able to distinguish body membranes by location (visceral, parietal) and by secretions (serous, mucous.)

A

Serous:
- Membranes that line body cavities and cover organs. Allows organs to slide without friction
- Viseral: covers the organ
- Parietal: lines cavity
ex. Pleura (lungs), Pericardium (heart), Peritoneum (abdominal cavity)

Serous secretions stay inside the body cavities to protect against friction. Mucous secretions protect the inside of the body against the outside environment

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4
Q

What is superior vs inferior? Dorsal vs ventral? Anterior vs posterior? Distal vs medial? What is anatomical position?

A
  • Above/below
  • Back/front
  • Front/back
  • Distant from trunk/close to trunk
  • Standing straight with palms facing forward and thumbs pointed outward
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5
Q

Understand and be able to name the three planes of section.

A

Frontal - Cut into anterior and posterior
Transverse plane - Cross section
Sagittal plane - Split in half down the forehead(could be mid sagittal)

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6
Q

What are the organ systems of the body and their functions?

A
  • Integumentary - Provides protection from the environment
  • Skeletal - Protects and supports organs as well as providing a framework to muscles
  • Muscular - Allows for locomotion
  • Nervous - A fast acting control system that responds to internal and external stimuli
  • Endocrine - Hormone secretion
  • Cardiovascular - Transportation of blood which carries nutrients to the body
  • Lymphatic - Is responsible for mounting immune responses against foreign substances
  • Respiratory - Rids the body of CO2 while maintaining O2 supply
  • Digestive - Breaks down food into nutrients
  • Urinary - Eliminated nitrogenous wastes and regulates blood
  • Reproductive system - Responsible for reproduction of organisms
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7
Q

What are the nine regions and four quadrants of the abdomen and some of the viscera associated with these regions?

A

Nine Regions:
- Right hypochondriac region, Epigastric region, Left hypochondriac region, Right lumbar region, Umbilical region, Left lumbar region, Right inguinal region, Hypogastric region, Left inguinal region

Four regions:
- Upper right Q, Upper left Q, Lower right Q, Lower left Q

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8
Q

What is a cell, its basic activities and its three major regions?

A

The smallest unit of life. It is an organized structure that responds to stimuli, maintains homeostasis, grows, and reproduces with the help of organelle.

  • Plasma membrane - Flexible semi permeable outer boundary
  • Cytoplasm - Ocean in which boats (organelle) are contained
  • Nucleus - Control center
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9
Q

How many chromosomes in a diploid human cell? In a haploid cell?

A

Diploid = 46n (23 pairs for cell growth)
Haploid = 23n (1/2 needed for sexual reproduction)

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10
Q

Which cells are haploid?

A

Gametes

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11
Q

Name the current model for the plasma membrane. Be able to describe it thoroughly and to give the role of each molecular component in the plasma membrane.

A

Fluid mosaic model
- Has a phospholipid bilayer with channels and gates as well as cholesterol to aid in fluidity, import and export of food and waste, and allows interactions with its surroundings with receptors and carbohydrates on the surface

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12
Q

What is meant by the term ‘selective permeability’ of the membrane?

A

The phospholipid bilayer has a hydrophobic component meaning polar molecules must pass through a channel or enter via vesicle.

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13
Q

Know the terms hydrophobic (water hating- like our lipid membrane), hydrophilic (water loving), polar and nonpolar and how do these terms relate to the layout of the membrane bilayer? Know the regions in the sketch of a phospholipid molecule.

A

Hydrophobic - hates water
Hydrophilic - water loving
Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail

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14
Q

Be able to distinguish each intracellular organelle by its appearance and by its function. Which organelle is rich in hydrolytic enzymes? Which organelle pinches off small vesicles to package protein and be modified elsewhere?

A

Nucleus - contains genetic information vital to proteins production
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) - rough is responsible for protein manufacturing, smooth is responsible for lipid break down
Golgi apparatus - Processes and packages proteins and lipids for extracellular export
Lysosome - Membranous sacs filled with digestive enzymes that breakdown organelle, bones, glycogen, and bacteria
Peroxisome - Membrane bound sacs that are filled with oxidase to neutralize free radicals and protect DNA
** Mitochondria** - Where nutrients are sent to power the production of ATP via aerobic respiration
Ribosomes - responsible for translation of mRNA to protein
** Centrosome and Centrioles** - Responsible for facilitating cell division (mitotic spindle)

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15
Q

What is the role of ATP (know its full name) in the cell, where is it made?

A

Adenosine triphosphate is made in the mitochondria and is the energy currency of the cell

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16
Q

Know exocytosis and its reverse - endocytosis. Why are these processes classified as ‘bulk transport’?

A

Exo - Out
Endo - In
The process transports multiple molecules that would be too big or polar to pass the bilayer

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17
Q

Distinguish between microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules of the cytoskeleton both in protein makeup and function in the cell.

A

Microfilaments - Strands made of actin, support cell shape
Intermediate filaments - Tough and insoluble fiber proteins(rope) bind organelle
Microtubules - Hollow spherical protein made of tubulins, facilitate transport

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18
Q

Can you appreciate the order of DNA - to RNA- to protein? Which step is transcription, translation?

A

DNA is transcribed into RNA which is processed into mRNA which it is exported. mRNA is then translated to form a polypeptide chain

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19
Q

What are proteins made of?

A

Amino Acids

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20
Q

What is DNA? Where is it stored?

A

Genetic information stored in the nucleus. Sequence of nucleotides, double helix.

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21
Q

What is the cell cycle? Know what G1 and S and G2 and mitosis are.

A

G1(gap1) is growth
S is growth and DNA synthesis
G2(gap 2) is growth for preparation for division

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22
Q

Know the names and the characteristics of each of the steps in mitosis.

A

Prophase - Chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nuclear envelope begins to break down
Metaphase - Chromosomes cluster in the middle of the cells
Anaphase - Centromeres of chromosomes split and chromosomes pulled into polls
Telophase and cytokinesis - New chromosomes extend into Chromatin and new nuclear membrane is formed. nucleoli reappears and a contractile ring forms

23
Q

What are tissues? What are the 4 major types? Be able to describe the role of each type and characteristic of each type.

A

Epithelial tissue - Protection and glands, secretion, absorbtion and more
Connective tisse - Binds together tissue using mix of many molecules and matrix
Muscular tissue - Contractile tissue
Nervous tissue - Discuss later

24
Q

What is epithelium? What is its purpose? What are unique characteristics? How are the cells shaped? What is endothelium, mesothelium, pseudostratified, and stratified?

A

Epithelium - protection
- A special characteristic is the cellularity of this tissue with a distinct apical and basal side. These traits help with secretion, absorption, filtration, and more
- There is simple and stratified types of lairs while cell shape can also vary from squamous to cuboidal to colombnar

Endothelium, Mesothelium, and Pseudostratified
- These are simple epithelium with specialized functions.
- Simple squamous lines blood vessels to allow for nutrient and waste exchange
- Simple squamous lines the abdominal cavities and secretes lubricating fluid
- Does not look simple but it is because all cells are attached to the same base. Found in respiratory tract (cilia) to trap debris and pathogens by helping form mucus

Stratified epithelia
- Major role in protection with multiple layers
- Keratinized (water resistant)
- Unkeratinized (esophagus and vagina)

25
Q

What is transitional epithelium?

A
  • Areas that have epithelial layer and connective layer that allows for stretching such as bladder
26
Q

What is epithelia?

A

A sheet of cells that covers a body surface or cavity

27
Q

What are the special characteristics of epithelia?

A
  • Cellularity and variable layers allow for unique functions such a as secretion, absorption, filtration, and sensory reception
  • Avascular but innervated
28
Q

How do we classify epithelia? Give examples. What does this suggest about the cell’s function (4.1)

A
  • Classified by simple (1 layer) or stratified (multilayer)
  • Classified by shape; squamous (flat square), cuboidal (cube), or columnar (column)
29
Q

What types of glands do we have? Which have ducts? What tissue do they arise from? What types of secretions are there?

A
  • We have endocrine and exocrine glands
  • Exocrine has ducts to reach epithelial surfaces
  • Arise from epithelial tissue
  • Mucousal secretions and serous secretions (watery)
30
Q

What are the surface features of epithelial cells? What are the lateral surface features and what different functions do they provide?

A
  • Surface features often include cilia or microvili intended to maximize surface area for absorption or secretion
  • Lateral surface has gap junctions, tight junctions, and desmosomes connecting the cells which allow for signaling, anchoring, and impermeability
31
Q

What types of basal features do epithelial cells have? Apical features? Functions?

A
  • Cells are attached to basal membrane
  • Apical surface usually has cilia to increase surface area for absorption/secretion
32
Q

What is connective tissue? What is the extracellular matrix and how is it important in connective tissue?

A
  • An abundant aggregate of cells that connect cells, form skeleton, store and carry nutrients, surround blood vessels and nerves, fight infection, produce heat, and physically protect
  • Cells always separated by extracellular matrix
  • Originate from mesenchyme
  • Extra cellular matrix is a combination of many proteins, carbs, and other molecules that allow cells to carry out functions
33
Q

What are the general structural and functional elements of connective tissue? What types of fibers may be present and their function? What is ground substance? Understand that ground substance + Fibers = Cellular matrix What cells may be present?

A
  • Connective tissue made up of cells and an extra cellular matrix
  • Fibers in connective tissue include collagen fiber (Provide tensile strength and support), Elastic fiber (Allow tissue to stretch), and Reticular fibers (supports structure of organs)
  • Ground substance is the syrup like fluid in which connective tissue cells live in (found in extracellular fluid)
  • Fibroblasts, immune cells, mesenchymal cells are present to produce fibers to contribute to cell surroundings to form the extracellular fluid
34
Q

List and characterize all the categories of connective tissue proper.

A

Loose connective tissue (fibrous) - Loose and open framework
- Areolar CT (support tissue binding, holding body fluids, defending against infection, store nutrients via fats, waste removal)
- Adipose (store nutrients, highly vascular, found in hypodermis (around internal organs)
- Reticular CT (only Reticular fibers in extracellular matrix)

35
Q

List and characterize all other connective tissues.

A

Dense
- Regular
- Run in the same direction, parallel to direction of pull (tendons, ligaments, elastic tissue)
- Irregular
- Similar to areolar but collagen is thickener and two layers run perpendicular
Fluid
- Blood
- Lymph
Supporting
- Bone
- Matrix contains calcium salts and collagen fibers
- Spongy heads of long bones
- Compact
- Haversian system
- Cartilage
- Resist compression and tension
- No blood vessels or nerves
- Hyaline most abundant, elastic, fibrocartilage

36
Q

What are the covering and lining membranes and what fluids do they secrete?

A

Serous membranes
- Line cavities and cover organs
- Secrete serous fluid (watery substance to reduce friction
- Parietal layer lines cavity
- Viseral layer covers organs

37
Q
  1. Be able to distinguish between the -blasts and -cytes in function for bone and cartilage (and for bone, the -clast cells.)
A
  • Blasts create while cytes maintain
    Ex. Osteoblasts and osteocytes
38
Q

Name the three types of cartilage, describe the differences in their composition, compare their functions, and be able to give body locations for each type.

A

Hyaline
- Most abundant (delicate collagen fibrils)
- Support via flexibility
- Fetal skeleton, trachea
Elastic
- Contains elastic fibers and collagen fibers
- Tolerate repeated bending
- Ear epiglottis
Fibrocartilage
- Resists strong compression and tension
- intermediate bt hyaline and dense regular connective (thick collagen fibers)
- Intervertebral discs, menisci

39
Q

Explain how cartilage grows.

A

Appositional growth
- Stem cells surrounding perichondrium divide and form new committed stem cells
- Differentiate into chondroblasts
- Chondroblasts form new matrix resulting in formation of chondrocytes and occupy their own lacuna
- New matrix produced peripherally thus appositional growth occurs
Interstitial growth
- Chondrocyte within Cartilage divide and two cells live in a lacuna
- Cells secrete matrix
- New matrix = pushed apart and development of their own lacuna
- New cells in their lacunae are called chondrocytes ( new matrix is interstitial)

40
Q

Name the two structural types of bone and the advantages of each type. Be able to take a diagram of a gross section through long bone and to name all regions/structures. Also be able to label all structures in a microscopic view through a Haversian system

A

Dense/compact
- Outer layer
- Strength
Spongy
- lighter and found inside
bones
- Trabecular struct reduces weight and allows for marrow storage

41
Q

What are the functions of bones? Why are they considered organs?

A
  • Support movement and provide attachment sites for muscles
  • Blood formation (energy storage)
  • Mineral balance (calcium and phosphate
  • Protection
  • Bones are considered organs because there is various types of tissue working together to perform functions. They contain nerve and blood tissue as well as cartilage and endothelium
42
Q

Know the two ways in which bone can form (ossification) and know which occurs in flat bones versus all other bones.

A

All bones (except some skull bones and clavicles) develop from hyaline cartilage
Intramembranous ossification
- Membrane bones - Formed directly from mesenchyme
- Limited to flat skull bones and clavicles
Endochondral ossification
- Bones modeled in hyaline cartilage
- Begin forming in 2nd month of human development
- Continues forming into early adulthood

43
Q

The embryonic human skeleton is first formed in what specific material?

A

Hyaline cartilage

44
Q

Know the chemical composition of bone tissue and the functions of its organic and inorganic parts.

A

Matrix is composed of 35% organic and 65% mineral (calcium phosphate)
- Vascular and innervated
Organic- consists of collagen fibers and ground substance that help with bone strength and felxibility
Inorganic - consists of calcium phosphate that provide hardness to withstand force

45
Q

Be able to describe the process of bone lengthening, the events at the epiphyseal plates, and the hormones involved in bone deposition and bone reabsorption. How is testosterone different in its effects from growth hormone. What does an X-ray of a child’s long bone tell a radiologist? What does parathyroid hormone do to bones?

A
  • Bone collar formed. Cartilage deteriorates. periosteal bud and Spongy bone formation. formation of medullary cavity, secondary ossification sites appear. Ossification of epiphyses
  • At the end hyaline cartilage is only in epiphyseal plates and articular cartilages where growth occurs
  • Chondroblasts divide rapidly forming stacks and diaphyseal side of plate is overtaken by osteoblasts forming bone. results in diaphysis growth while epiphyseal plate thickness remains constant
  • Testosterone onsets puberty and signals beginning of the end of bone growth
  • X ray will show how much space exists between plates which can how much growth can be expected
  • Parathyroid increases osteoclasts and decreases osteoblasts
46
Q

What is the process of bone resorption? What cell type in involved? What is the process of bone deposition? What cell type is involved?

A
  • Releasing calcium from the bones
  • Osteoclasts
  • Putting calcium into the bones
  • Osteoblasts
47
Q

Know the bones which form the axial vs. the appendicular skeleton.

A

Axial - Skull, spine, and ribs
Appendicular - Legs and arms

48
Q

Name the fontanels, their purpose, and their average age of closure

A

The 6 fontanels present at birth are the anterior, posterior, and paired anterolateral and posterolateral fontanelles. The posterior fontanelle closes first at about 2 months. The anterolateral fontanelles normally close 3 months after birth. The posterolateral fontanelles close at the end of the first year, and the anterior fontanelle, which is the last to close, generally does so by 2 years.

Example: The fontanels are soft spots on a baby’s head that allow for the skull to expand during birth.

49
Q

Name the 4 paranasal sinuses and their functions

A

FEMS
Frontal - lighten weight + voice resonance
Ethmoid- Help humidification and filtration of air +
Sphenoid - lighten weight and voice resonance
Maxillary - lighten weight + voice resonance

50
Q

Name the 4 normal vertebral curvatures, when each arises, and the anatomical names for exaggerated curvatures

A
  1. Cervical curve - Infants hold head 3-4 months
  2. Thoracic curve - Present at birth
  3. Lumbar curve - Develops when standing 12-18 months
  4. Sacral curve present at birth
51
Q

Know differences in bone fracture by their definitions

A

Spiral - twist = break
Depressed - broken bone pressed in
Comminuted - fragments into 3+ pieces
Compression - bone crushed
Epiphyseal tears epiphysis from diaphysis
greenstick - incomplete break

52
Q

Be able to describe the process of fracture repair (giving the role of the periosteum and endosteum)

A
  1. Hematoma forms
  2. Fibrocartilaginous callus forms
  3. Bony callus forms
  4. Bone is remodeled but bony callus remains

Periosteum forms callus on outside of bone
Endosteum helps with resorption of bone inside and restoring normal structure

53
Q

Be able to describe the types of bone diseases (osteoporosis, Osteomalacia, Rickets, Paget’s Disease, osteosarcoma, etc.)

A

Osteoporosis - Pores and reduced bone mass
Osteomalacia - Demineralized bone
Rickets - Large abnormal osteoclast = increase resorbtion
Osteosarcoma - Malignant bone sarcoma

Anatomy (30 decks)

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