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A&P > Lecture Exam 3 > Flashcards

Lecture Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Functions of bone

A
  1. Structure and support
  2. Protection
  3. Stores minerals (calcium)
  4. Important for blood cell development
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2
Q

What forms of calcium are important for making bone?

A
  1. Calcium phosphate

2. Calcium hydroxide

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3
Q

Hydroxyapatite

A

Calcium phosphate and calcium hydroxide formed together; a crystal that makes bones hard

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4
Q

2/3 of bone is made up of what

A

Calcium phosphate

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5
Q

1/3 of bone is made up of what

A

Collagen, which gives out bones some flexibility

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6
Q

Rickets

A

A disease of calcium deficiency that causes bones to bend, especially in legs

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7
Q

What is the importance of vitamin D

A

It helps us absorb calcium

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8
Q

Osteogenesis Imperfecta

A

A disease of collagen deficiency, causes brittle bones

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9
Q

Diaphysis

A

The shaft of a long bone

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10
Q

Epiphysis

A

The end of the shaft

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11
Q

Metaphysis

A

Where bones grow longer; where the diaphysis connects to the epiphysis

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12
Q

Types of bones that make up a long bone

A
  1. Compact bone

2. Spongy bone

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13
Q

Compact bone

A

Dense, solid bone; extremely strong in one plane; surrounds the diaphysis for protection

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14
Q

Medullary cavity

A

The hollow space of the diaphysis; Bone marrow

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15
Q

Osteon

A

Makes up compact bone; the entire circular structure

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16
Q

Central canal

A

In compact bone; has blood vessels (usually an artery and a vein); brings in nutrients and takes away waste products

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17
Q

Concentric lamellae

A

In compact bone; each circle that makes up an osteon

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18
Q

Osteocyte

A

In compact bone; The dark spots in a concentric lamellae that makes bone until it traps itself in a lacuna

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19
Q

Lacuna

A

Compact bone; Where the osteocytes trap themselves

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20
Q

Canaliculi

A

Compact bone; Tunnels that connects all of the osteocytes together; made by osteocytes to get nutrients from the central canal

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21
Q

Interstitial lamellae

A

Compact bone; Bone tissue that fills in the gaps between the osteons; made from old osteons that have been recycled

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22
Q

Circumferential lamellae

A

Compact bone; Allows bones to grow in diameter; surrounds an osteon completely; created from stress on the bone and makes the bone bigger

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23
Q

Periosteum

A

Compact bone; A layer of connective tissue that surrounds the bone; allows tissue to connect to bone

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24
Q

Perforating fibers

A

Compact bone; Collagen fibers that embeds in the bone and prevents the periosteum from pulling away when the muscles pull on it; originates in periosteum

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25
Q

Spongy bone

A

Surrounds the epiphyses; strong in multiple planes

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26
Q

Trabeculae

A

Fibers that make the web-like structure of the osteons in spongy bone

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27
Q

Types of cells in bones

A
  1. Osteoprogenitor cells
  2. Osteoblasts
  3. Osterocyte
  4. Osteoclast
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28
Q

Osteoprogenitor cell

A

Comes from mesenchymal stem cell; stem cell that can only become bone cells; divide and helps make and repair bone

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29
Q

Mesenchymal stem cell

A

A stem cell that has the ability to form many types of cells

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30
Q

Osteoblasts

A

Osteoprogenitor cells mature/form into this; bone forming cell

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31
Q

How osteoblasts create bone

A
  1. Osteoblasts create osteoid

2. Osteoblasts raise calcium above its solubility limit

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32
Q

Osteoid

A

The foundation of bone; the organic part of bone; this is where collagen is found

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33
Q

Solubility limit

A

When sugar is continually added to water and won’t dissolve anymore; calcium does this and crystalizes, making bones strong and hard

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34
Q

When is a osteoblast called an osteocyte

A

Once an osteoblast makes all the calcium that is can and is trapped in a lacuna

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35
Q

FOP

A

Osteocytes are overactive and osteoblasts are formed in tissue where they should not be

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36
Q

Osteoclasts

A

Formed from a macrophage; this cell type degrades/breaks down bone

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37
Q

How do osteoclasts and osteoblasts work

A

They work together in equilibrium

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38
Q

When does bone growth begin

A

At 6 weeks post fertilization

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39
Q

How do bones begin

A

They begin as cartilage until osstification

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40
Q

Osstification

A

The process of replacing other tissues with bone

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41
Q

Two forms of osstification:

A
  1. Endochondral osstification

2. Intramembranous osstification

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42
Q

Endochondral osstification

A

The formation of long bones

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43
Q

Intramembranous osstification

A

The formation of non long bones

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44
Q

Chondrocytes

A

Cells that make hyaline cartilage

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45
Q

Cartilage is what kind of tissue

A

Avascular tissue

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46
Q

Why is cartilage avascular?

A

Because chondrocytes make anti-angiogenesis factor

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47
Q

Anti-angiogenesis factor

A

Made by chondrocytes that prevents blood vessel formation

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48
Q

Hypertrophy

A

When chondrocytes swell and get large; shortly after undergoing hypertrophy the chondrocytes die which enables blood vessel growth

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49
Q

Where does bone formation begin?

A

At the diaphysis (shaft)

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50
Q

What happens once blood vessels grow

A

Nutients and bone cells (mesenchymal stem cells that become osteoblasts and macrophages that become osteoclasts) begin to be delivered into the center of the cartilage

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51
Q

How is cartilage turned into bone?

A
  1. Osteoblasts turn all of the cartilage into bone

2. Osteoclasts carve out the medulla to make bone hollow

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52
Q

Primary osstification center

A

The place in the diaphysis that is osstified first

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53
Q

Secondary ostification center

A

The place in the epiphysis that is osstified after the primary

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54
Q

What is different about the secondary osstification center from the primary osstification center?

A

Not all of the cartilage is osstified and turned into bone

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55
Q

Examples of cartilage that is not turned into bone

A
  1. Articular cartilage

2. Epiphysis cartilage

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56
Q

Articular cartilage

A

Cartilage that surrounds the end of the epiphysis; this reduces friction between bones

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57
Q

Epiphyseal cartilage

A

This is between the diaphysis and the epiphysis; this is the “growth plate” where bones can grow longer; once it is gone, the bone cannot get any longer

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58
Q

How is intramembranous ossification different from endochondral ossification?

A

Flat bones do not start off as cartilage

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59
Q

How are flat bones made?

A

Osteocytes make bone, then osteoclasts carve out the bone and make it into a specific shape

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60
Q

Types of post-developmental bone growth

A
  1. Appositional growth

2. Epiphyseal growth

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61
Q

Appositional growth

A

Increase in bone diameter

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62
Q

Epiphyseal growth

A

Increase in bone length

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63
Q

Where does appositional growth happen and how does it happen?

A

At the circumferential lamellae, osteoblasts add more circumferential lamellae layers

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64
Q

What is different about appositional growth and epiphyseal growth?

A

Appositional growth occurs throughout your lifetime, epiphyseal growth begins at birth and lasts throughout the end of puberty

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65
Q

What causes an increase in appositional growth

A

Stress on a bone

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66
Q

What happens on the lower part (B) of the epiphyseal cartilage?

A

Osteoblast turns cartilage into bone

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67
Q

What happens on the upper part (A) of the epiphyseal cartilage?

A

Chondrocytes make new cartilage, as fast (almost) as the osteocytes are making bone

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68
Q

Hormones that are important during puberty

A
  1. Testosterone
  2. Estrogen
  3. Growth hormone (HGH)
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69
Q

What makes growth hormone

A

The pituitary gland

70
Q

What happens to these hormones during puberty

A

They increase a lot

71
Q

What do hormones do during puberty?

A

They make osteoblasts and chondrocytes work faster

72
Q

Why do osteocytes work a little faster than chondrocytes?

A

So that eventually the epiphyseal cartilage gets smaller and puberty stops

73
Q

Epiphyseal line

A

Shows where the epiphyseal cartilage was after puberty

74
Q

How much calcium is in bones?

A

99%

75
Q

Where is the other 1% of calcium?

A

In the blood

76
Q

What is normal blood calcium level

A

8.5-11mg/dL

77
Q

Parathyroid gland

A

Regulates blood calcium level

78
Q

Parathyroid cells

A

Secrete parathyroid hormone

79
Q

What does the parathyroid hormone do?

A

It targets

  1. Bone
  2. Intestines/Digestive system
  3. Kidneys
80
Q

How does the parathyroid hormone effect bone?

A

It increases osteoclasts and inhibits osteoblasts

81
Q

How does the parathyroid hormone effect intestines/digestive system?

A

It increases calcium absorption from food which increases blood calcium levels

82
Q

How does the parathyroid hormone effect kidneys?

A

It increases calcium absorption in the kidneys so that we don’t lose calcium in the urine

83
Q

How do all of the effects of the parathyroid hormone work together?

A

They all happen at the same time

84
Q

Types of bones

A
  1. Long bones
  2. Short bones
  3. Sesamoid bones
  4. Flat bones
  5. Sutural bone
  6. Irregular bone
85
Q

Example of long bone

A

Humerus

86
Q

Example of short bone

A

Carpals

87
Q

Sesamoid bones

A

Bone that forms inside of a tendon

88
Q

Example of sesamoid bones

A

Patella

89
Q

Example of flat bone

A

Ribs and sternum

90
Q

Sutural bone

A

Found within the sutures of the skull

91
Q

Example of irregular bone

A

Vertebrae

92
Q

Articulations

A

Where two bones interconnect

93
Q

Synarthroses

A

Immoveable joints

94
Q

Amphiarthroses

A

Slightly moveable joints

95
Q

Diarthroses or Synovial

A

Freely moveable joints

96
Q

Types of synarthroses joints

A
  1. Suture
  2. Gomphosis
  3. Synchondrosis
  4. Synostosis
97
Q

Suture

A

Skull bones bound together by dense connective tissue

98
Q

Gomphosis

A

Teeth bound to bony sockets by periodontal ligaments

99
Q

Synchondrosis

A

Two bones bound by rigid cartilaginous

100
Q

Example of synchondrosis

A

Joints in hand before fusing

101
Q

Synostosis

A

Two bones completely fused

102
Q

Example of synostosis

A

Joints in hand after fusing

103
Q

Why don’t the sutures form until after birth?

A
  1. To get through the birth canal

2. The brain expands and gets bigger

104
Q

Types of amphiarthroses joints

A
  1. Syndesmosis

2. Symphasis

105
Q

Syndesmosis

A

Bones connected by collagenous fibers

106
Q

Example of syndesmosis

A

Distal and proximal tibiofibular joints

107
Q

Symphasis

A

Bone separated by fibrocartilage

108
Q

Example of symphasis

A

Pubic symphasis

109
Q

Example of diarthroses

A

Shoulder, knees

110
Q

Synovial membrane

A

A membrane that surrounds the diarthroses

111
Q

Synovial fluid

A

Inside the membrane between the joints

112
Q

What is the purpose of synovial membrane and fluid?

A

Reduces friction and creates a large range of motion

113
Q

Function of skeletal muscle

A
  1. Gives us voluntary movement
  2. Generates body heat
  3. Stores nutrients (Glycogen)
114
Q

Epimysium

A

In skeletal muscle; connective tissue that surrounds the muscle; separates each muscle

115
Q

Perimysium

A

In skeletal muscle; Where all blood supply and nerves are found; separates the muscle fascicle

116
Q

Muscle fascicle

A

In skeletal muscle; one bundle of fibers

117
Q

Muscle fibers

A

In skeletal muscle; composes the inside of a muscle fascicle

118
Q

Endomysium

A

In skeletal muscle; connective tissue that separates muscle fibers in a muscle fascicle

119
Q

Characteristics of muscle cells

A
  1. Long and cylindrical
  2. Many nuclei found on the plasma membrane
  3. Striated
120
Q

Sarcolemma

A

The plasma membrane of a muscle cell/fiber; generates and propagates action potentials

121
Q

Transverse or T tubules

A

Tunnels that lead to the middle of the cell; allows an action potential to move from the membrane to deep into the cell

122
Q

Sarcoplasmic reticular

A

The ER of the muscle cell/fiber; makes proteins; stores and releases calcium

123
Q

Myofibril

A

Makes up a muscle fiber/cell

124
Q

Sarcomere

A

Makes up myofibril that contains proteins

125
Q

Protein lines in the sarcomere

A
  1. M line
  2. Z line
  3. Thick filaments
  4. Thin filaments
126
Q

M line

A

In the middle of the sarcomere

127
Q

Z line

A

There are two; one on each end of the sarcomere

128
Q

Thick filaments

A

Attaches to the M line and extends towards the Z line

129
Q

Thin filaments

A

Attaches to the Z lines and points towards the M line

130
Q

Zone of overlap

A

Where the thick and thin filaments overlap

131
Q

Sliding filament theory

A

In order for a contraction to occur, thin filaments must slide along the thick filaments towards the M line

132
Q

Myosin

A

The only protein that makes up thick filaments

133
Q

Parts of a myosin

A
  1. Myosin tail
  2. Myosin head
  3. Hinge
134
Q

Characteristics of the myosin head

A
  1. Responsible for contacting thin filament
  2. Forms the cross bridge
  3. Can power stroke
  4. Requires ATP
135
Q

Power stroke

A

Describes the movement of the myosin head; always pulls the thin filaments towards the M line

136
Q

Hinge

A

Connects the head to the tail and allows movement

137
Q

Proteins that make thin filaments

A
  1. G-actin
  2. Tropomyosin
  3. Troponin
138
Q

G-actin

A

Has an active site

139
Q

F-actin

A

Made of many G-actin

140
Q

Active site

A

Where the myosin head contacts the thin filaments and creates a cross bridge

141
Q

Tropomyosin

A

Blocks the active site

142
Q

Troponin

A

Moves the tropomyosin to unblock the active site

143
Q

Things troponin interacts with/touches

A
  1. G-actin
  2. Tropomyosin
  3. Calcium
144
Q

Troponin will only pull tropomyosin off G-actin if there is what

A

Calcium

145
Q

Neuromuscular junction

A

A motor neuron forms a synapse with a muscle cell

146
Q

Cholinergic

A

Describes a neuron that secretes Acetylcholine

147
Q

Steps in initiating a muscle contraction

A
  1. Acetylcholine (Ach) is released from the synapse and binds to receptors
  2. Action potential (Ach) reaches a T tubule to bring it deep into the cell
  3. Action potential reaches the sacroplasmic reticulum and it releases calcium (Ca2+)
148
Q

The contraction cycle

A
  1. Calcium arrives
  2. Calcium binds to troponin and exposes the active site
  3. The myosin head forms a cross bridge with an active site
  4. The myosin head power strokes
  5. ATP is required to break the cross bridge and reset
149
Q

How do we control tension within a single sarcomere?

A
  1. Controlling the starting length of the sarcomere

2. Controlling the frequency of stimulation

150
Q

When is maximum tension produced?

A

When the zone of overlap is large but the thin filaments do not extend across the sarcomere’s center; all of the myosin heads can make a cross bridge

151
Q

What makes something the optimal starting length

A
  1. The zone of overlap is long, making you able to make the most cross bridges
  2. Having enough room for the thin filaments to slide between the thick filaments
152
Q

As the sarcomere length gets longer

A

There are less cross bridges that can be made (smaller zone of overlap)

153
Q

What prevents the sarcomere from stretching so much that you can’t contract your muscle

A

Bone structure

154
Q

What happens when the sarcomere length gets shorter?

A

Thin filaments start hitting the M line which decreases the tension that can be produced

155
Q

Twitch

A

Non useful contraction

156
Q

What starts a twitch

A

A stimulus/Acetylcholine being delivered

157
Q

Phases of a twitch

A
  1. Latent period
  2. Contraction phase
  3. Relaxation phase
158
Q

Latent period

A

No tension is produced; The action potential arrives and goes through the T tubules then to the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which releases calcium to the sarcomere

159
Q

Contraction phase

A

Tension begins when calcium binds to troponin and a cross bridge is formed

160
Q

Relaxation phase

A

Muscle is getting rid of calcium

161
Q

What gets rid of calcium?

A

The sarcoplasmic reticulum

162
Q

What happens in repeated stimulations

A

Before all of the calcium ions can be taken by the sarcoplasmic reticulum, an action potential comes through again. This means there are more calcium ions for the 2nd contraction, making the tension greater for each stimulation

163
Q

Tetanus

A

A useful muscle contraction; when there is little time for relaxation and the tension is greatest

164
Q

Motor unit

A

One motor neuron forming a synapse on multiple muscle cells

165
Q

Small motor units

A

Control about 5-10 muscle fibers

166
Q

Large motor units

A

Control about 500-1000 muscle fibers

167
Q

Why do we have different sized motor units?

A
  1. Helps control muscle tension

2. The motor units cycle, so that they don’t all get fatigued at once

168
Q

Asynchronous motor unit summation

A

In this “relay team” approach, each motor unit can recover somewhat before it is stimulated again

169
Q

Fast twitch muscle

A

Gives brief and precise movements; has a very small blood supply

170
Q

Slow twitch muscle

A

Muscles that give sustained contractions over a long period of time; has a larger blood supply; has myoglobin

171
Q

Example of slow twitch muscle

A

Legs

172
Q

Myoglobin

A

A form of hemoglobin found in muscles; stores oxygen

A&P (13 decks)

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