Lecture Exam 3 Flashcards
Functions of bone
- Structure and support
- Protection
- Stores minerals (calcium)
- Important for blood cell development
What forms of calcium are important for making bone?
- Calcium phosphate
2. Calcium hydroxide
Hydroxyapatite
Calcium phosphate and calcium hydroxide formed together; a crystal that makes bones hard
2/3 of bone is made up of what
Calcium phosphate
1/3 of bone is made up of what
Collagen, which gives out bones some flexibility
Rickets
A disease of calcium deficiency that causes bones to bend, especially in legs
What is the importance of vitamin D
It helps us absorb calcium
Osteogenesis Imperfecta
A disease of collagen deficiency, causes brittle bones
Diaphysis
The shaft of a long bone
Epiphysis
The end of the shaft
Metaphysis
Where bones grow longer; where the diaphysis connects to the epiphysis
Types of bones that make up a long bone
- Compact bone
2. Spongy bone
Compact bone
Dense, solid bone; extremely strong in one plane; surrounds the diaphysis for protection
Medullary cavity
The hollow space of the diaphysis; Bone marrow
Osteon
Makes up compact bone; the entire circular structure
Central canal
In compact bone; has blood vessels (usually an artery and a vein); brings in nutrients and takes away waste products
Concentric lamellae
In compact bone; each circle that makes up an osteon
Osteocyte
In compact bone; The dark spots in a concentric lamellae that makes bone until it traps itself in a lacuna
Lacuna
Compact bone; Where the osteocytes trap themselves
Canaliculi
Compact bone; Tunnels that connects all of the osteocytes together; made by osteocytes to get nutrients from the central canal
Interstitial lamellae
Compact bone; Bone tissue that fills in the gaps between the osteons; made from old osteons that have been recycled
Circumferential lamellae
Compact bone; Allows bones to grow in diameter; surrounds an osteon completely; created from stress on the bone and makes the bone bigger
Periosteum
Compact bone; A layer of connective tissue that surrounds the bone; allows tissue to connect to bone
Perforating fibers
Compact bone; Collagen fibers that embeds in the bone and prevents the periosteum from pulling away when the muscles pull on it; originates in periosteum
Spongy bone
Surrounds the epiphyses; strong in multiple planes
Trabeculae
Fibers that make the web-like structure of the osteons in spongy bone
Types of cells in bones
- Osteoprogenitor cells
- Osteoblasts
- Osterocyte
- Osteoclast
Osteoprogenitor cell
Comes from mesenchymal stem cell; stem cell that can only become bone cells; divide and helps make and repair bone
Mesenchymal stem cell
A stem cell that has the ability to form many types of cells
Osteoblasts
Osteoprogenitor cells mature/form into this; bone forming cell
How osteoblasts create bone
- Osteoblasts create osteoid
2. Osteoblasts raise calcium above its solubility limit
Osteoid
The foundation of bone; the organic part of bone; this is where collagen is found
Solubility limit
When sugar is continually added to water and won’t dissolve anymore; calcium does this and crystalizes, making bones strong and hard
When is a osteoblast called an osteocyte
Once an osteoblast makes all the calcium that is can and is trapped in a lacuna
FOP
Osteocytes are overactive and osteoblasts are formed in tissue where they should not be
Osteoclasts
Formed from a macrophage; this cell type degrades/breaks down bone
How do osteoclasts and osteoblasts work
They work together in equilibrium
When does bone growth begin
At 6 weeks post fertilization
How do bones begin
They begin as cartilage until osstification
Osstification
The process of replacing other tissues with bone
Two forms of osstification:
- Endochondral osstification
2. Intramembranous osstification
Endochondral osstification
The formation of long bones
Intramembranous osstification
The formation of non long bones
Chondrocytes
Cells that make hyaline cartilage
Cartilage is what kind of tissue
Avascular tissue
Why is cartilage avascular?
Because chondrocytes make anti-angiogenesis factor
Anti-angiogenesis factor
Made by chondrocytes that prevents blood vessel formation
Hypertrophy
When chondrocytes swell and get large; shortly after undergoing hypertrophy the chondrocytes die which enables blood vessel growth
Where does bone formation begin?
At the diaphysis (shaft)
What happens once blood vessels grow
Nutients and bone cells (mesenchymal stem cells that become osteoblasts and macrophages that become osteoclasts) begin to be delivered into the center of the cartilage
How is cartilage turned into bone?
- Osteoblasts turn all of the cartilage into bone
2. Osteoclasts carve out the medulla to make bone hollow
Primary osstification center
The place in the diaphysis that is osstified first
Secondary ostification center
The place in the epiphysis that is osstified after the primary
What is different about the secondary osstification center from the primary osstification center?
Not all of the cartilage is osstified and turned into bone
Examples of cartilage that is not turned into bone
- Articular cartilage
2. Epiphysis cartilage
Articular cartilage
Cartilage that surrounds the end of the epiphysis; this reduces friction between bones
Epiphyseal cartilage
This is between the diaphysis and the epiphysis; this is the “growth plate” where bones can grow longer; once it is gone, the bone cannot get any longer
How is intramembranous ossification different from endochondral ossification?
Flat bones do not start off as cartilage
How are flat bones made?
Osteocytes make bone, then osteoclasts carve out the bone and make it into a specific shape
Types of post-developmental bone growth
- Appositional growth
2. Epiphyseal growth
Appositional growth
Increase in bone diameter
Epiphyseal growth
Increase in bone length
Where does appositional growth happen and how does it happen?
At the circumferential lamellae, osteoblasts add more circumferential lamellae layers
What is different about appositional growth and epiphyseal growth?
Appositional growth occurs throughout your lifetime, epiphyseal growth begins at birth and lasts throughout the end of puberty
What causes an increase in appositional growth
Stress on a bone
What happens on the lower part (B) of the epiphyseal cartilage?
Osteoblast turns cartilage into bone
What happens on the upper part (A) of the epiphyseal cartilage?
Chondrocytes make new cartilage, as fast (almost) as the osteocytes are making bone
Hormones that are important during puberty
- Testosterone
- Estrogen
- Growth hormone (HGH)
What makes growth hormone
The pituitary gland
What happens to these hormones during puberty
They increase a lot
What do hormones do during puberty?
They make osteoblasts and chondrocytes work faster
Why do osteocytes work a little faster than chondrocytes?
So that eventually the epiphyseal cartilage gets smaller and puberty stops
Epiphyseal line
Shows where the epiphyseal cartilage was after puberty
How much calcium is in bones?
99%
Where is the other 1% of calcium?
In the blood
What is normal blood calcium level
8.5-11mg/dL
Parathyroid gland
Regulates blood calcium level
Parathyroid cells
Secrete parathyroid hormone
What does the parathyroid hormone do?
It targets
- Bone
- Intestines/Digestive system
- Kidneys
How does the parathyroid hormone effect bone?
It increases osteoclasts and inhibits osteoblasts
How does the parathyroid hormone effect intestines/digestive system?
It increases calcium absorption from food which increases blood calcium levels
How does the parathyroid hormone effect kidneys?
It increases calcium absorption in the kidneys so that we don’t lose calcium in the urine
How do all of the effects of the parathyroid hormone work together?
They all happen at the same time
Types of bones
- Long bones
- Short bones
- Sesamoid bones
- Flat bones
- Sutural bone
- Irregular bone
Example of long bone
Humerus
Example of short bone
Carpals
Sesamoid bones
Bone that forms inside of a tendon
Example of sesamoid bones
Patella
Example of flat bone
Ribs and sternum
Sutural bone
Found within the sutures of the skull
Example of irregular bone
Vertebrae
Articulations
Where two bones interconnect
Synarthroses
Immoveable joints
Amphiarthroses
Slightly moveable joints
Diarthroses or Synovial
Freely moveable joints
Types of synarthroses joints
- Suture
- Gomphosis
- Synchondrosis
- Synostosis
Suture
Skull bones bound together by dense connective tissue
Gomphosis
Teeth bound to bony sockets by periodontal ligaments
Synchondrosis
Two bones bound by rigid cartilaginous
Example of synchondrosis
Joints in hand before fusing
Synostosis
Two bones completely fused
Example of synostosis
Joints in hand after fusing
Why don’t the sutures form until after birth?
- To get through the birth canal
2. The brain expands and gets bigger
Types of amphiarthroses joints
- Syndesmosis
2. Symphasis
Syndesmosis
Bones connected by collagenous fibers
Example of syndesmosis
Distal and proximal tibiofibular joints
Symphasis
Bone separated by fibrocartilage
Example of symphasis
Pubic symphasis
Example of diarthroses
Shoulder, knees
Synovial membrane
A membrane that surrounds the diarthroses
Synovial fluid
Inside the membrane between the joints
What is the purpose of synovial membrane and fluid?
Reduces friction and creates a large range of motion
Function of skeletal muscle
- Gives us voluntary movement
- Generates body heat
- Stores nutrients (Glycogen)
Epimysium
In skeletal muscle; connective tissue that surrounds the muscle; separates each muscle
Perimysium
In skeletal muscle; Where all blood supply and nerves are found; separates the muscle fascicle
Muscle fascicle
In skeletal muscle; one bundle of fibers
Muscle fibers
In skeletal muscle; composes the inside of a muscle fascicle
Endomysium
In skeletal muscle; connective tissue that separates muscle fibers in a muscle fascicle
Characteristics of muscle cells
- Long and cylindrical
- Many nuclei found on the plasma membrane
- Striated
Sarcolemma
The plasma membrane of a muscle cell/fiber; generates and propagates action potentials
Transverse or T tubules
Tunnels that lead to the middle of the cell; allows an action potential to move from the membrane to deep into the cell
Sarcoplasmic reticular
The ER of the muscle cell/fiber; makes proteins; stores and releases calcium
Myofibril
Makes up a muscle fiber/cell
Sarcomere
Makes up myofibril that contains proteins
Protein lines in the sarcomere
- M line
- Z line
- Thick filaments
- Thin filaments
M line
In the middle of the sarcomere
Z line
There are two; one on each end of the sarcomere
Thick filaments
Attaches to the M line and extends towards the Z line
Thin filaments
Attaches to the Z lines and points towards the M line
Zone of overlap
Where the thick and thin filaments overlap
Sliding filament theory
In order for a contraction to occur, thin filaments must slide along the thick filaments towards the M line
Myosin
The only protein that makes up thick filaments
Parts of a myosin
- Myosin tail
- Myosin head
- Hinge
Characteristics of the myosin head
- Responsible for contacting thin filament
- Forms the cross bridge
- Can power stroke
- Requires ATP
Power stroke
Describes the movement of the myosin head; always pulls the thin filaments towards the M line
Hinge
Connects the head to the tail and allows movement
Proteins that make thin filaments
- G-actin
- Tropomyosin
- Troponin
G-actin
Has an active site
F-actin
Made of many G-actin
Active site
Where the myosin head contacts the thin filaments and creates a cross bridge
Tropomyosin
Blocks the active site
Troponin
Moves the tropomyosin to unblock the active site
Things troponin interacts with/touches
- G-actin
- Tropomyosin
- Calcium
Troponin will only pull tropomyosin off G-actin if there is what
Calcium
Neuromuscular junction
A motor neuron forms a synapse with a muscle cell
Cholinergic
Describes a neuron that secretes Acetylcholine
Steps in initiating a muscle contraction
- Acetylcholine (Ach) is released from the synapse and binds to receptors
- Action potential (Ach) reaches a T tubule to bring it deep into the cell
- Action potential reaches the sacroplasmic reticulum and it releases calcium (Ca2+)
The contraction cycle
- Calcium arrives
- Calcium binds to troponin and exposes the active site
- The myosin head forms a cross bridge with an active site
- The myosin head power strokes
- ATP is required to break the cross bridge and reset
How do we control tension within a single sarcomere?
- Controlling the starting length of the sarcomere
2. Controlling the frequency of stimulation
When is maximum tension produced?
When the zone of overlap is large but the thin filaments do not extend across the sarcomere’s center; all of the myosin heads can make a cross bridge
What makes something the optimal starting length
- The zone of overlap is long, making you able to make the most cross bridges
- Having enough room for the thin filaments to slide between the thick filaments
As the sarcomere length gets longer
There are less cross bridges that can be made (smaller zone of overlap)
What prevents the sarcomere from stretching so much that you can’t contract your muscle
Bone structure
What happens when the sarcomere length gets shorter?
Thin filaments start hitting the M line which decreases the tension that can be produced
Twitch
Non useful contraction
What starts a twitch
A stimulus/Acetylcholine being delivered
Phases of a twitch
- Latent period
- Contraction phase
- Relaxation phase
Latent period
No tension is produced; The action potential arrives and goes through the T tubules then to the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which releases calcium to the sarcomere
Contraction phase
Tension begins when calcium binds to troponin and a cross bridge is formed
Relaxation phase
Muscle is getting rid of calcium
What gets rid of calcium?
The sarcoplasmic reticulum
What happens in repeated stimulations
Before all of the calcium ions can be taken by the sarcoplasmic reticulum, an action potential comes through again. This means there are more calcium ions for the 2nd contraction, making the tension greater for each stimulation
Tetanus
A useful muscle contraction; when there is little time for relaxation and the tension is greatest
Motor unit
One motor neuron forming a synapse on multiple muscle cells
Small motor units
Control about 5-10 muscle fibers
Large motor units
Control about 500-1000 muscle fibers
Why do we have different sized motor units?
- Helps control muscle tension
2. The motor units cycle, so that they don’t all get fatigued at once
Asynchronous motor unit summation
In this “relay team” approach, each motor unit can recover somewhat before it is stimulated again
Fast twitch muscle
Gives brief and precise movements; has a very small blood supply
Slow twitch muscle
Muscles that give sustained contractions over a long period of time; has a larger blood supply; has myoglobin
Example of slow twitch muscle
Legs
Myoglobin
A form of hemoglobin found in muscles; stores oxygen