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A&P > Lecture Exam 2 > Flashcards

Lecture Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Central nervous system

A
  1. Brain

2. Spinal cord

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2
Q

Reflex

A

Automatic, reproducible response to a stimulus

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3
Q

What reflex did we focus on?

A

Neural reflex

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4
Q

How do you detect a stimulus?

A

By using a receptor that takes information about a stimulus and sends it to the integration center, which determines if the stimulus requires a response, if a response is needed it sends the information to an effector which responds to the stimulus

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5
Q

What is different about a neural reflex from a reflex?

A

The receptor, integration center, and effector are all connected by neurons

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6
Q

Pain/withdraw reflex

A

Moves affected parts of the body away from the stimulus

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7
Q

Events in a reflex arc

A
  1. Arrival of stimulus and activation of receptor
  2. Activation of sensory neuron
  3. Information processing in the CNS
  4. Activation of a motor neuron
  5. Response by effector
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8
Q

Sensory neuron

A

In epithelium; allows us to detect stimuli in the environment; this is the receptor for the pain reflex

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9
Q

What do receptors on the dendrites do

A

They are always detecting stimuli, but they don’t always do something about it

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10
Q

Resting membrane potential

A

The resting phase of a neuron; when you don’t notice any stimuli from the environment

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11
Q

Threshold

A

When a stimulus is strong enough to take it out of resting membrane potential; the point where a stimulus is so strong that it activates a sensory neuron

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12
Q

Action potential

A

How neurons communicate; when the stimulus is so strong that the neuron gets to threshold, it will create this

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13
Q

Synapse

A

Where a neuron reaches another cell

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14
Q

Graded potential

A

Describes a neuron that is analyzing information and deciding what to do about it

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15
Q

Motor neuron

A

Activates effectors; activated by CNS

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16
Q

What is an example of a motor neuron

A

When moving your hand away from a hot stove, the effector is your muscle

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17
Q

Ways to classify reflexes

A
  1. By development
  2. By effector
  3. By complexity
  4. By integration center
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18
Q

Reflexes classified by development

A
  1. Innate reflex

2. Learned (acquired) reflex

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19
Q

Innate reflex

A

Reflexes that you are born with; that you don’t have to learn

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20
Q

Learned (acquired) reflex

A

Learned, more complex, motor patterns that are continuously refined

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21
Q

Can you suppress a reflex?

A

Yes, you can repress some, but not all, reflexes

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22
Q

Reflexes classified by effector

A
  1. Somatic reflex

2. Visceral reflex

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23
Q

Somatic reflex

A

Effector is a response from skeletal muscle

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24
Q

Visceral reflex

A

Effector is a response from an organ

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25
Q

Reflexes classified by complexity

A
  1. Monosynaptic reflex

2. Polysynaptic reflex

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26
Q

Monosynaptic reflex

A

One synapse is being used at a time

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27
Q

Example of monosynaptic reflex

A

Pain reflex

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28
Q

Polysynaptic reflex

A

Multiple synapses being used

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29
Q

Pros to monosynaptic refle

A

They are really fast

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30
Q

Cons to monosynaptic reflex

A

They are unrefined; if you pull away from something painful you could hit your hand on something else

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31
Q

Pros to polysynaptic reflex

A

More refined and complex; if you step on a toy you press down on one foot to keep balance and pull up the other foot

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32
Q

Cons to polysynaptic reflex

A

It is slower than monosynaptic reflex

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33
Q

Types of integration centers

A
  1. Cranial

2. Spinal

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34
Q

What determines which type of integration center you use

A

The location

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35
Q

What does it mean that reflexes are not mutually exclusive?

A

A reflex can be many different classes (monosynaptic and innate)

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36
Q

Reflexes happen…

A

Before we perceive the stimulus; this allows us to minimize the damage

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37
Q

Nervous system branches

A
  1. Central nervous system

2. Peripheral nervous system

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38
Q

Main function of the CNS

A

It is the integration center

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39
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A

All the neural tissue that is not in the brain or spinal cord

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40
Q

Types of PNS

A
  1. Afferent nervous system

2. Efferent nervous system

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41
Q

Afferent nervous system

A

System of neurons that brings sensory information from the body into the CNS

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42
Q

Efferent nervous system

A

Carries motor command information from the CNS to the body

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43
Q

Types of Efferent nervous system

A
  1. Somatic nervous system

2. Autonomic nervous system

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44
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

Carries efferent/motor commands to skeletal muscle

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45
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

Controls everything that we move unconsciously

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46
Q

Types of autonomic nervous system

A
  1. Sympathetic nervous system

2. Parasympathetic nervous system

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47
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A

“Fight or flight”; increases heart and respiratory rate and shuts down the urinary system and digestive system to save energy

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48
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

“Rest and digest”; stimulates the digestive and urinary systems, decreases heart and respiratory rate

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49
Q

Can you have both the sympathetic and parasympathetic system working at the same time?

A

Yes, there is always a combination of both

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50
Q

Cell body

A

Soma

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51
Q

Parts of cell body

A
  1. Nucleus

2. Perikaryon

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52
Q

Perikaryon

A

The space around the nucleus; peri=around karyon=nucleus

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53
Q

What is found in the perikaryon

A

All of the organelles that would be found in a normal cell

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54
Q

What does the perikaryon lack that other normal cells have, and what does this cause?

A

Centrioles, which makes neurons unable to divide

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55
Q

Nissl bodies

A

The equivalent of the rough ER in neurons; has ribosomes, which link amino acids and makes proteins, that cover the outside and makes it “rough”; causes the grey color

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56
Q

Axon hillock

A

This creates an action potential if a stimulus is strong enough for a response

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57
Q

What direction does the action potential move?

A

Away from the soma

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58
Q

Axolemma

A

The plasma membrane of the axon

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59
Q

Action potential

A

An electrical current

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60
Q

Synaptic terminal

A

The end of the telodendria; where the neuron communicates with another cell

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61
Q

Telodendria

A

The branches of the axon

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62
Q

Synaptic cleft/Synapse

A

The small gap between the synaptic terminal and the next tell

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63
Q

How does the neuron communicate with the next cell?

A

Inside of the synaptic vesicles there are neurotransmitters; the neuron uses exocytosis to dump the neurotransmitters into the synapse/synaptic cleft

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64
Q

What do the neurotransmitters do?

A

They tell the next cell what to do

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65
Q

Types of neurons

A
  1. Anaxonic neuron
  2. Bipolar neuron
  3. Unipolar neuron
  4. Multipolar neuron
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66
Q

Anaxonic neuron

A

Dendrites and axons look the same; the only neuron that is only in the CNS; they help serve as integration centers

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67
Q

Bipolar neuron

A

Afferent; cell body has two distinct extensions (one goes to dendrites, one goes to axon); carries special sensory information like sound, sight, and taste

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68
Q

Unipolar neuron

A

Afferent; cell body with one extension that splits; carries sensory information for everything besides special sensory information like somatic and visceral information

69
Q

Multipolar neuron

A

Efferent; multiple extensions; carries motor commands from the CNS to the body

70
Q

Membrane potential

A

An electrical charge; the charge on the inside of the membrane RELATIVE to the charge on the outside

71
Q

What is the mV for resting potential?

A

-70 mV

72
Q

What things contribute to the negative charge

A
  1. Leak channels
  2. Sodium-potassium pump
  3. Intracellular proteins
73
Q

Leak channel

A

Allows for the facilitated diffusion of sodium and potassium ions

74
Q

Where are there more sodium ion?

A

Outside the membrane

75
Q

Where are there more potassium ions?

A

Inside the membrane

76
Q

Sodium and potassium have ____ charges

A

Positive

77
Q

Potassium leaks ____, sodium leaks ____

A

Out; in

78
Q

Does sodium or potassium leak faster?

A

Potassium leaks out faster than sodium leaks in

79
Q

Potassium leaking out faster than sodium leaking in causes what

A

This lowers the charge inside the cell making it more negative

80
Q

Sodium-potassium pump

A

Active transport; moves sodium out and potassium in; uses energy because it moves things against the gradient

81
Q

Does sodium or potassium move in/out more?

A

More sodium is moving out than potassium is moving in

82
Q

Intracellular proteins

A

Located right on the inside of the membrane; negative charge; makes the inside more negative than the outside

83
Q

What causes a membrane potential to leave resting membrane potential?

A

A stimulus

84
Q

What does a stimulus do to the resting membrane potential?

A

Either:

  1. Makes it more positive
  2. Makes it more negative
85
Q

Graded potential

A

A stimulus that acts on a neuron at rest; a deviation from the resting membrane potential (more + or more -)

86
Q

Types of graded potentials

A
  1. Depolarizing graded potential

2. Hyperpolarizing graded potential

87
Q

Depolarizing graded potential

A

A deviation that makes membrane potential more positive/more like the outside

88
Q

Depolarizing graded potential is also called

A

Excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP)

89
Q

Hyperpolarizing graded potential

A

A deviation that makes membrane potential more negative/less like the outside

90
Q

Hyperpolarizing graded potential is also called

A

Inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP)

91
Q

O mV would mean

A

It is the same on the inside and outside

92
Q

Threshold (membrane potential)

A

A membrane potential that is between -55 to -50 mV; A certain charge that causes a neuron to fire an action potential

93
Q

EPSP gets you

A

Closer to threshold

94
Q

IPSP moves it

A

Further from threshold to silence a neuron

95
Q

Gated channels

A

At rest, are typically closed

96
Q

Types of gated channels

A
  1. Chemically gated channel

2. Mechanically gated channel

97
Q

Chemically gated channel

A

A chemical stimulus caused it to open

98
Q

Mechanically gated channel

A

Mechanical pressure (being touched) caused it to open

99
Q

What do gated channels allow?

A

These allow ions to move through the membrane

100
Q

Gated channels can either be

A
  1. Potassium channels

2. Sodium channel

101
Q

If a chemical produced a EPSP it would be

A

A sodium channel because sodium moves from the outside in, down its gradient

102
Q

What happens in gated channels

A

They carry out graded potentials; chemical binds to the gated channels, moves in, then is diffused across the membrane

103
Q

How can you tell what kind of gated channel it is?

A

Look at which way the ions are moving, if they are moving in, it is sodium; if they are moving out, it is potassium

104
Q

What do the sodium-potassium pumps do?

A

It moves sodium back out to get back to resting membrane potential

105
Q

What is the graded potential “battle”?

A

EPSP is trying to bring sodium in and reach threshold while the sodium-potassium pumps are trying to pump sodium out and get away from threshold and back to resting membrane potential

106
Q

How do you reach threshold?

A

There has to be more sodium coming in than the sodium-potassium pump can push back out

107
Q

1 EPSP only changes the membrane potential by

A

About .5 mV

108
Q

Summation

A

Adding more than 1 graded potential together; used to get to threshold

109
Q

Types of summation

A
  1. Temporal summation

2. Spatial summation

110
Q

Temporal summation

A

When we summate graded potentials from a single synapse

111
Q

Explain temporal summation

A

One telodendrian synapses with another neuron. An action potential is sent through the telodendrian and neurotransmitters are sent through the synapse; happens one after another faster than the sodium-potassium pump can push out

112
Q

Can you summate EPSP and IPSP at the same time in temporal summation?

A

No, you can only summate EPSP OR IPSP, not both at the same time; Because one synapse can only send one type of graded potential (EPSP or IPSP) and they would just cancel each other out

113
Q

Spatial summation

A

When we summate graded potentials from multiple synapses; the sodium mixes; the synapses must be close together

114
Q

What does summation do for graded potentials

A

Graded potentials are weak by themselves, so we have to summate them to reach threshold

115
Q

How do we differentiate between different action potentials?

A

By the way that our neurons are wired; the action potentials get sent to different places in our brain

116
Q

What determines different sensations/the strength of the signal?

A

The number of action potentials that are being generated

117
Q

Volted-gated channel

A

A membrane potential (mV) causes it to open or close; has two gates: activation gate on outside of cell, inactivation gate on inside of cell

118
Q

What happens to a volted-gated channel once you reach threshold?

A

The gates open and allows sodium to rush through until the membrane potential reaches 30 mV

119
Q

When does the inactivation gate close?

A

When the membrane potential reaches 30 and stays closed until the neuron goes back to resting membrane potential

120
Q

What happens once the membrane reaches -70mV (volted-gated channel)?

A

The inactivation gate opens and the activation gate closes

121
Q

Describe the graph and what happens when the membrane potential reaches threshold

A

When the membrane potential reaches threshold, action potential begins and the membrane potential goes more and more positive, then it goes back to resting membrane potential

122
Q

What can we tell from this graph?

A
  1. In this graph there is an EPSP that depolarizes

2. It must be summated because one EPSP will move it only about .5 mV

123
Q

What happens when the cell reaches threshold?

A

Volted gated sodium channels open

124
Q

Once the membrane reaches 30+ what happens?

A
  1. The inactivation gate of the volted gated sodium channel closes
  2. Volted gated potassium channels open and potassium rushed out
125
Q

What happens at about -70mV?

A

Volted gated potassium channels are closed

126
Q

What is happening at 4 on the graph? (mV moves below -70mV briefly after the action potential comes back down and then moves back to resting membrane potential)

A

The potassium channels take a long time to close, so they start closing down early causing it to lose a little too much potassium and it hyperpolarizes, or becomes more negative

127
Q

What protein repolarizes and gets the cell back to rest?

A

Sodium-potassium pump

128
Q

Why do we need an IPSP?

A

To move things away from threshold so that another neuron can have more accurate information (mosquito example)

129
Q

How does an action potential move down the axon?

A

One section depolarizes, reaches threshold, fires an action potential, and volted gated sodium channels open causing sodium to rush in, diffuse, and cause the next section to reach threshold

130
Q

Propagation

A

How an action potential moves from the cell body to the synapse

131
Q

Types of propagation

A
  1. Continuous propagation

2. Saltatory propagation

132
Q

Continuous propagation

A

When every single part of the axon reaches threshold; not very fast

133
Q

Saltatory propagation

A

Skips through the axon and doesn’t touch every part of the axon; fastest way

134
Q

What makes saltatory propagation possible?

A

Myelin

135
Q

What cell types produce myelin?

A
  1. Shwann cell

2. Oligodendrocyte

136
Q

What does myelin do for an axon?

A

It prevents any ions from moving across the membrane so there is no movement of sodium or potassium; it wraps around the axon in layers

137
Q

Node of Ranvier

A

The exposed axon that is not covered by myelin

138
Q

Internodes

A

Myelinated regions between the nodes that is covered in myelin

139
Q

How do action potentials move?

A

They are unidirectional, they only move towards the synapse and away from the cell body

140
Q

Absolute refractory period

A

The period of time from when the volted gated sodium channels open until they close and are inactivated

141
Q

Why is it impossible to fire an action potential during the absolute refractory period?

A

Because the volted gated sodium channels are either being used or inactivated

142
Q

Relative refractory period

A

The period of time when the membrane is hyperpolarized and below resting membrane potential

143
Q

Why can you fire an action potential during the relative refractory period?

A

Because the volted gated sodium channels are reset and can be used again, but the stimulus has to be stronger than normal because the membrane potential is further than usual from threshold

144
Q

What happens when the sodium diffuses, going both up and down the membrane, and it goes backwards?

A

The membrane is in absolute refractory period and can’t fire another action potential

145
Q

What is the importance of refractory periods?

A

They keep action potentials moving in one direction

146
Q

What determines the speed of an action potential?

A
  1. If it is myelinated or not

2. The diameter of the axon/neuron

147
Q

How does the diameter of the axon/neuron affect the speed of an action potential?

A

Local currents can move quicker and sodium diffuses faster

148
Q

Fastest type of neuron

A

Myelinated with a large diameter

149
Q

Slowest type of neuron

A

Unmyelinated with a small diameter

150
Q

Presynaptic neuron

A

The neuron that is giving the neurotransmitters

151
Q

Postsynaptic neuron

A

The neuron that is receiving the neurotransmitters

152
Q

Cholinergic

A

Secretes Acetylcholine

153
Q

Neuromuscular junction

A

A neuron forms a synapse onto a muscle cell

154
Q

What happens when the action potential reaches the synapse?

A

It opens a volted gated calcium channel, which is found at the end of the synapse that opens in response to the action potential

155
Q

Calcium has the same concentration gradient as what and what does that mean

A

Sodium; this means that calcium floods into the cell, down its gradient

156
Q

What is the result of calcium flooding into the cell?

A

It causes the exocytosis of the neurotransmitter into the synapse

157
Q

What happens after the neurotransmitters are pushed into the synapse?

A

Acetylcholine or other neurotransmitters binds to a receptor on the postsynaptic neuron and sodium moves in

158
Q

What kind of receptor are they?

A

Chemically gated sodium channels

159
Q

What does the sodium do to the next cell?

A

It makes it start an EPSP, but that doesn’t mean that it will reach threshold

160
Q

Reuptake

A

Since neurotransmitters need to be removed from the synapse, this is the process where the presynaptic neuron sucks the neurotransmitters back up

161
Q

Neuroglia

A

All other cells besides neurons in neural tissue

162
Q

Types of neuroglia in the CNS

A
  1. Astrocyte
  2. Oligodendrocyte
  3. Microglia
163
Q

Astrocyte

A

Has arm like structures and covers capillaries; they determine what from the blood gets in and doesn’t get in to the CNS

164
Q

Oligodendrocyte

A

Makes myelin, but only in the CNS

165
Q

Microglia

A

Important for immunity in the CNS

166
Q

Types of neuroglia in the PNS

A
  1. Schwann cells

2. Satellite cells

167
Q

Schwann cells

A

Make myelin in the PNS

168
Q

Satellite cells

A

Important for immunity in the PNS

A&P (13 decks)

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