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A&P > Final Lecture Exam > Flashcards

Final Lecture Exam Flashcards

1
Q

Hierarchy of Life

A
  1. Molecular/Chemical Level
  2. Cellular Level
  3. Tissue Level
  4. Organ Level
  5. Organ System
  6. Organism
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2
Q

Homeostasis

A

Having a stable internal environtment

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3
Q

Static equilibrium

A

If your body temperature stayed the same

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4
Q

Dynamic equilibrium

A

Not the same everyday (changes). There is a range that is accepted

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5
Q

Autoregulation

A

Regulation without help

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6
Q

Examples of autoregulation

A

Stomach
- Food puts off homeostasis, so it undergoes homeostasis to digest it
Running
- Blood to the heart increases by itself

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7
Q

Feed-forward

A

The ability to predict a change in homeostasis and begin to prepare for it before it happens

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8
Q

Examples of feed-forward

A

Your hungry and walk past a restaurant, your stomach growls, then it makes acid and enzymes to prepare for food

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9
Q

Types of Feedback (Loops)

A
  1. Positive feedback loop

2. Negative feedback loop

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10
Q

Positive feedback loop

A

Body’s response to stimulus is to exaggerate that stimulus; Used in situations where the only way to get back to homeostasis is to push through as fast as possible

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11
Q

Examples of positive feedback loops

A

Low body temperature.
Body’s response is to make it lower
Labor and Delivery
- Stimulus is cervical stretch
- Body responds by making oxytocin (by the hypothalamus)
- Oxytocin causes cervix to stretch
- Pitocin (being induced) speeds up positive feedback loop; oxytocin

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12
Q

Negative feedback loop

A

Body’s response to a stimulus is to revert the stimulus; The most important/most common type of regulation

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13
Q

What is the body’s first response to a stimulus

A

Recognizing the stimulus

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14
Q

Receptors

A

Recognizes a stimulus and sends information to the integration center

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15
Q

Integration center

A

(The brain, usually) Takes in information and determines if a response is necessary; If a response is necessary it sends information to the effector

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16
Q

Types of macromolecules

A
  1. Proteins
  2. Lipids
  3. Carbohydrates
  4. Nucleic acids
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17
Q

What is the monomer that is used to make proteins?

A

Amino acids

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18
Q

What is the monomer for lipids

A

Fatty acids

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19
Q

What is the monomer of carbohydrates

A

Monosaccharides

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20
Q

What is the monomer of nucleic acids

A

Nucleotides

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21
Q

Functions of proteins

A

Help with structure

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22
Q

Function of lipids

A

Store energy

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23
Q

Function of carbohydrates

A

Main source of energy

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24
Q

Function of nucleic acids

A

Make up genetic information

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25
Q

Activation energy

A

Energy that is needed to get a chemical reaction moving

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26
Q

Enzymes

A

Protein catalysts that our body uses that can be reused over and over

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27
Q

What is the function of enzymes

A

To make chemical reactions happen fast enough to maintain life

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28
Q

What do enzymes do

A

Lower the amount of activation energy required

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29
Q

Active site

A

Pockets that are formed from the what that the protein forms

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30
Q

A protein is only functional if

A

It folds into the correct shape

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31
Q

What must happen for a protein to be functional

A

It must turn into a 3D structure

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32
Q

Factors that influence enzyme activity

A
  1. pH

2. Temperature

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33
Q

When do enzymes not work as well

A
  1. Colder temperature

2. Hotter temperature

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34
Q

What happens to enzymes in colder temperatures

A

They slow down

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35
Q

What happens to enzymes in hotter temperature

A

It denatures

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36
Q

Denature

A

The 3D structure breaks down and it reverts to its primary structure

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37
Q

What happens when an enzyme denatures

A

The hydrophobic amino acids go into the water and are unprotected

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38
Q

Example of activation energy

A

Stirring sugar in water

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39
Q

Triglyceride

A

3 fatty acids (tri) that are connected with a glycerol (glyceride)

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40
Q

Triglyceride function

A
  1. Energy
  2. Used to store fatty acids (they are stored as triglycerides)
  3. Insulation
  4. Protection
    (know 3)
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41
Q

Phospholipid

A

2 fatty acids attached to a phosphate group; amphipathic

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42
Q

Phospholipid function

A

Used in the plasma membrane to create a phospholipid bilayer and protect the hydrophobic parts (heads are hydrophilic, tails are hydrophobic)

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43
Q

Phospholipids are

A

Amphipathic

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44
Q

Amphipathic

A

Parts of the molecule are hydrophobic and parts are hydrophilic

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45
Q

Three ways phospholipids organize

A
  1. Hydrophilic heads on water surface, tails sticking out
  2. Circle with hydrophilic heads on the outside, tails are protected on the inside
  3. Bilayer
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46
Q

Bilayer

A

The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer

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47
Q

What molecules pass through the plasma membrane freely

A

Hydrophobic

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48
Q

Most lipids are

A

Hydrophobic

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49
Q

Steroid function

A

Used for communcation

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50
Q

Nucleic acids function

A

Used to store information

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51
Q

What do you need for simple diffusion to occur?

A

A concentration gradient

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52
Q

What molecules move through the plasma membrane through simple diffusion

A

Small, hydrophobic molecules

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53
Q

What molecules use facilitated diffusion

A

Large, charged molecules because they are hydrophilic

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54
Q

Osmosis

A

Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane

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55
Q

Osmotic pressure

A

The higher the solute concentration, the higher the osmotic pressure. The side with the more solute has osmotic pressure. This describes the amount of pull that a solution has on water

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56
Q

Example of osmotic pressure

A
  • High osmotic pressure is needed by kidneys to pull water out of urine
  • Small intestine pulls water out of food waste, so it needs high osmotic pressure
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57
Q

Tonicity

A

Describes the effect that a solution has on a cell

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58
Q

Isotonic

A

Describes a solution that has solute that matches the inside. Water moves in and out for every water molecule that goes out, another goes in, creating equilibrium

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59
Q

Hypotonic

A

Less solute in the solution than inside the cell, or more solute inside the cell than the outside (it is plump)

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60
Q

Hypertonic

A

More solute outside the cell than inside

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61
Q

Active transport

A

Moves things against the concentration gradient, from low to high; requires energy because it is not “natural”

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62
Q

Sodium-potassium exchange pump

A

There is more sodium outside than inside the cell, and more potassium inside than outside; They are moved against the concentration gradient using ATP
- an example of active transport

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63
Q

Endocytosis

A

Membrane makes a “bud” and pulls something in after it pinches off into the cell

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64
Q

Types of endocytosis

A
  1. Pinocytosis
  2. Phagocytosis
  3. Receptor mediated
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65
Q

Pinocytosis

A

Constantly randomly testing fluid from the environment that can be useful or useless

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66
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Pulls in specific things by reaching out and capturing things from the environment

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67
Q

Receptor mediated

A

Extremely specific because it has receptor proteins that have active sites that are specific for binding to molecules

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68
Q

Reflex

A

Automatic, reproducible response to a stimulus

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69
Q

How do you detect a stimulus?

A

By using a RECEPTOR that takes information about a stimulus and sends it to the INTEGRATION CENTER, which determines if the stimulus requires a response, if a response is needed it sends the information to an EFFECTOR which responds to the stimulus

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70
Q

Events in a reflex arc

A
  1. Arrival of stimulus and activation of receptor
  2. Activation of sensory neuron
  3. Information processing in the CNS
  4. Activation of a motor neuron
  5. Response by effector
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71
Q

Pain/withdraw reflex

A

Moves affected parts of the body away from the stimulus

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72
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A

All the neural tissue that is not in the brain or spinal cord

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73
Q

Types of PNS

A
  1. Afferent nervous system

2. Efferent nervous system

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74
Q

Afferent nervous system

A

System of neurons that brings sensory information from the body into the CNS

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75
Q

Efferent nervous system

A

Carries motor command information from the CNS to the body

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76
Q

Types of Efferent nervous system

A
  1. Somatic nervous system

2. Autonomic nervous system

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77
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

Carries efferent/motor commands to skeletal muscle

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78
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

Controls everything that we move unconsciously

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79
Q

Function of the PNS

A

To bring sensory information to and from the CNS

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80
Q

Types of autonomic nervous system

A
  1. Sympathetic nervous system

2. Parasympathetic nervous system

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81
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A

“Fight or flight”; increases heart and respiratory rate and shuts down the urinary system and digestive system to save energy

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82
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

“Rest and digest”; stimulates the digestive and urinary systems, decreases heart and respiratory rate

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83
Q

Cell body

A

Soma

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84
Q

Parts of cell body

A
  1. Nucleus

2. Perikaryon

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85
Q

What is found in the perikaryon

A

All of the organelles that would be found in a normal cell

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86
Q

What does the perikaryon lack that other normal cells have, and what does this cause?

A

Centrioles, which makes neurons unable to divide

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87
Q

Nissl bodies

A

The equivalent of the rough ER in neurons; has ribosomes, which link amino acids and makes proteins, that cover the outside and makes it “rough”; causes the grey color

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88
Q

Axon hillock

A

This creates an action potential if a stimulus is strong enough for a response

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89
Q

Axolemma

A

The plasma membrane of the axon

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90
Q

Action potential

A

An electrical current

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91
Q

Synaptic terminal

A

The end of the telodendria; where the neuron communicates with another cell

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92
Q

Telodendria

A

The branches of the axon

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93
Q

Synaptic cleft/Synapse

A

The small gap between the synaptic terminal and the next tell

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94
Q

Membrane potential

A

An electrical charge; the charge on the inside of the membrane RELATIVE to the charge on the outside

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95
Q

Resting membrane potential

A

The resting phase of a neuron; when you don’t notice any stimuli from the environment

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96
Q

What is the mV for resting potential?

A

-70 mV

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97
Q

What things contribute to the negative charge

A
  1. Leak channels
  2. Sodium-potassium pump
  3. Intracellular proteins
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98
Q

Leak channel

A

Allows for the facilitated diffusion of sodium and potassium ions

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99
Q

Where are there more sodium ion?

A

Outside the membrane

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100
Q

Where are there more potassium ions?

A

Inside the membrane

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101
Q

Sodium and potassium have ____ charges

A

Positive

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102
Q

Potassium leaks ____, sodium leaks ____

A

Out; in

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103
Q

Does sodium or potassium leak faster?

A

Potassium leaks out faster than sodium leaks in

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104
Q

Potassium leaking out faster than sodium leaking in causes what

A

This lowers the charge inside the cell making it more negative

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105
Q

Sodium-potassium pump

A

Active transport; moves sodium out and potassium in; uses energy because it moves things against the gradient

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106
Q

Does sodium or potassium move in/out more?

A

More sodium is moving out than potassium is moving in

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107
Q

Intracellular proteins

A

Located right on the inside of the membrane; negative charge; makes the inside more negative than the outside

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108
Q

Graded potential

A

A stimulus that acts on a neuron at rest; a deviation from the resting membrane potential (more + or more -)

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109
Q

Types of graded potentials

A
  1. Depolarizing graded potential

2. Hyperpolarizing graded potential

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110
Q

Depolarizing graded potential

A

A deviation that makes membrane potential more positive/more like the outside

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111
Q

Depolarizing graded potential is also called

A

Excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP)

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112
Q

Hyperpolarizing graded potential

A

A deviation that makes membrane potential more negative/less like the outside

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113
Q

Hyperpolarizing graded potential is also called

A

Inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP)

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114
Q

Summation

A

Adding more than 1 graded potential together; used to get to threshold

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115
Q

Types of summation

A
  1. Temporal summation

2. Spatial summation

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116
Q

Temporal summation

A

When we summate graded potentials from a single synapse

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117
Q

Explain temporal summation

A

One telodendrian synapses with another neuron. An action potential is sent through the telodendrian and neurotransmitters are sent through the synapse; happens one after another faster than the sodium-potassium pump can push out

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118
Q

Can you summate EPSP and IPSP at the same time in temporal summation?

A

No, you can only summate EPSP OR IPSP, not both at the same time; Because one synapse can only send one type of graded potential (EPSP or IPSP) and they would just cancel each other out

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119
Q

Spatial summation

A

When we summate graded potentials from multiple synapses; the sodium mixes; the synapses must be close together

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120
Q

What does summation do for graded potentials

A

Graded potentials are weak by themselves, so we have to summate them to reach threshold

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121
Q

Action potential

A

How neurons communicate; when the stimulus is so strong that the neuron gets to threshold, it will create this

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122
Q

Threshold

A

When a stimulus is strong enough to take it out of resting membrane potential; the point where a stimulus is so strong that it activates a sensory neuron

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123
Q

What is the graded potential “battle”?

A

EPSP is trying to bring sodium in and reach threshold while the sodium-potassium pumps are trying to pump sodium out and get away from threshold and back to resting membrane potential

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124
Q

How do you reach threshold?

A

There has to be more sodium coming in than the sodium-potassium pump can push back out

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125
Q

Volted-gated channel

A

A membrane potential (mV) causes it to open or close; has two gates: activation gate on outside of cell, inactivation gate on inside of cell

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126
Q

What happens to a volted-gated channel once you reach threshold?

A

The gates open and allows sodium to rush through until the membrane potential reaches 30 mV

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127
Q

When does the inactivation gate close?

A

When the membrane potential reaches 30 and stays closed until the neuron goes back to resting membrane potential

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128
Q

What happens once the membrane reaches -70mV (volted-gated channel)?

A

The inactivation gate opens and the activation gate closes

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129
Q

Describe the graph and what happens when the membrane potential reaches threshold

A

When the membrane potential reaches threshold, action potential begins and the membrane potential goes more and more positive, then it goes back to resting membrane potential

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130
Q

What can we tell from this graph?

A
  1. In this graph there is an EPSP that depolarizes

2. It must be summated because one EPSP will move it only about .5 mV

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131
Q

What happens when the cell reaches threshold?

A

Volted gated sodium channels open

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132
Q

Once the membrane reaches 30+ what happens?

A
  1. The inactivation gate of the volted gated sodium channel closes
  2. Volted gated potassium channels open and potassium rushed out
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133
Q

What happens at about -70mV?

A

Volted gated potassium channels are closed

134
Q

What is happening at 4 on the graph? (mV moves below -70mV briefly after the action potential comes back down and then moves back to resting membrane potential)

A

The potassium channels take a long time to close, so they start closing down early causing it to lose a little too much potassium and it hyperpolarizes, or becomes more negative

135
Q

Absolute refractory period

A

The period of time from when the volted gated sodium channels open until they close and are inactivated

136
Q

Why is it impossible to fire an action potential during the absolute refractory period?

A

Because the volted gated sodium channels are either being used or inactivated

137
Q

Relative refractory period

A

The period of time when the membrane is hyperpolarized and below resting membrane potential

138
Q

Why can you fire an action potential during the relative refractory period?

A

Because the volted gated sodium channels are reset and can be used again, but the stimulus has to be stronger than normal because the membrane potential is further than usual from threshold

139
Q

What happens when the sodium diffuses, going both up and down the membrane, and it goes backwards?

A

The membrane is in absolute refractory period and can’t fire another action potential

140
Q

What is the importance of refractory periods?

A

They keep action potentials moving in one direction

141
Q

Propagation

A

How an action potential moves from the cell body to the synapse

142
Q

Continuous propagation

A

When every single part of the axon reaches threshold; not very fast

143
Q

Saltatory propagation

A

Skips through the axon and doesn’t touch every part of the axon; fastest way

144
Q

What makes saltatory propagation possible?

A

Myelin

145
Q

Diaphysis

A

The shaft of a long bone

146
Q

Epiphysis

A

The end of the shaft

147
Q

Metaphysis

A

Where bones grow longer; where the diaphysis connects to the epiphysis

148
Q

Types of bones that make up a long bone

A
  1. Compact bone

2. Spongy bone

149
Q

Compact bone

A

Dense, solid bone; extremely strong in one plane; surrounds the diaphysis for protection

150
Q

Medullary cavity

A

The hollow space of the diaphysis; Bone marrow

151
Q

Osteon

A

Makes up compact bone; the entire circular structure

152
Q

Central canal

A

In compact bone; has blood vessels (usually an artery and a vein); brings in nutrients and takes away waste products

153
Q

Concentric lamellae

A

In compact bone; each circle that makes up an osteon

154
Q

Osteocyte

A

In compact bone; The dark spots in a concentric lamellae that makes bone until it traps itself in a lacuna

155
Q

Lacuna

A

Compact bone; Where the osteocytes trap themselves

156
Q

Canaliculi

A

Compact bone; Tunnels that connects all of the osteocytes together; made by osteocytes to get nutrients from the central canal

157
Q

Interstitial lamellae

A

Compact bone; Bone tissue that fills in the gaps between the osteons; made from old osteons that have been recycled

158
Q

Circumferential lamellae

A

Compact bone; Allows bones to grow in diameter; surrounds an osteon completely; created from stress on the bone and makes the bone bigger

159
Q

Periosteum

A

Compact bone; A layer of connective tissue that surrounds the bone; allows tissue to connect to bone

160
Q

Perforating fibers

A

Compact bone; Collagen fibers that embeds in the bone and prevents the periosteum from pulling away when the muscles pull on it; originates in periosteum

161
Q

Spongy bone

A

Surrounds the epiphyses; strong in multiple planes

162
Q

Trabeculae

A

Fibers that make the web-like structure of the osteons in spongy bone

163
Q

Osteoblasts

A

Osteoprogenitor cells mature/form into this; bone forming cell

164
Q

How osteoblasts create bone

A
  1. Osteoblasts create osteoid

2. Osteoblasts raise calcium above its solubility limit

165
Q

Osteoclasts

A

Formed from a macrophage; this cell type degrades/breaks down bone

166
Q

How do osteoclasts and osteoblasts work

A

They work together in equilibrium

167
Q

Osstification

A

The process of replacing other tissues with bone

168
Q

Two forms of osstification:

A
  1. Endochondral osstification

2. Intramembranous osstification

169
Q

Endochondral osstification

A

The formation of long bones

170
Q

Intramembranous osstification

A

The formation of non long bones

171
Q

Chondrocytes

A

Cells that make hyaline cartilage

172
Q

What happens once blood vessels grow

A

Nutients and bone cells (mesenchymal stem cells that become osteoblasts and macrophages that become osteoclasts) begin to be delivered into the center of the cartilage

173
Q

How is cartilage turned into bone?

A
  1. Osteoblasts turn all of the cartilage into bone

2. Osteoclasts carve out the medulla to make bone hollow

174
Q

How is intramembranous ossification different from endochondral ossification?

A

Flat bones do not start off as cartilage

175
Q

How are flat bones made?

A

Osteocytes make bone, then osteoclasts carve out the bone and make it into a specific shape

176
Q

Types of post-developmental bone growth

A
  1. Appositional growth

2. Epiphyseal growth

177
Q

Appositional growth

A

Increase in bone diameter

178
Q

Epiphyseal growth

A

Increase in bone length

179
Q

Where does appositional growth happen and how does it happen?

A

At the circumferential lamellae, osteoblasts add more circumferential lamellae layers

180
Q

What is different about appositional growth and epiphyseal growth?

A

Appositional growth occurs throughout your lifetime, epiphyseal growth begins at birth and lasts throughout the end of puberty

181
Q

What causes an increase in appositional growth

A

Stress on a bone

182
Q

What happens on the lower part (B) of the epiphyseal cartilage?

A

Osteoblast turns cartilage into bone

183
Q

What happens on the upper part (A) of the epiphyseal cartilage?

A

Chondrocytes make new cartilage, as fast (almost) as the osteocytes are making bone

184
Q

What is normal blood calcium level

A

8.5-11mg/dL

185
Q

Parathyroid gland

A

Regulates blood calcium level

186
Q

Parathyroid cells

A

Secrete parathyroid hormone

187
Q

What does the parathyroid hormone do?

A

It targets

  1. Bone
  2. Intestines/Digestive system
  3. Kidneys
188
Q

How does the parathyroid hormone effect bone?

A

It increases osteoclasts and inhibits osteoblasts

189
Q

How does the parathyroid hormone effect intestines/digestive system?

A

It increases calcium absorption from food which increases blood calcium levels

190
Q

How does the parathyroid hormone effect kidneys?

A

It increases calcium absorption in the kidneys so that we don’t lose calcium in the urine

191
Q

How do all of the effects of the parathyroid hormone work together?

A

They all happen at the same time

192
Q

If blood calcium levels get too high, what tissue gets it back to homeostasis and what does it secrete

A

Thyroid gland releases calcitonin

193
Q

Function of skeletal muscle

A
  1. Gives us voluntary movement
  2. Generates body heat
  3. Stores nutrients (Glycogen)
194
Q

Epimysium

A

In skeletal muscle; connective tissue that surrounds the muscle; separates each muscle

195
Q

Perimysium

A

In skeletal muscle; Where all blood supply and nerves are found; separates the muscle fascicle

196
Q

Muscle fascicle

A

In skeletal muscle; one bundle of fibers

197
Q

Muscle fibers

A

In skeletal muscle; composes the inside of a muscle fascicle

198
Q

Endomysium

A

In skeletal muscle; connective tissue that separates muscle fibers in a muscle fascicle

199
Q

Sarcolemma

A

The plasma membrane of a muscle cell/fiber; generates and propagates action potentials

200
Q

Myofibril

A

Makes up a muscle fiber/cell

201
Q

Sarcomere

A

Makes up myofibril that contains proteins

202
Q

Transverse or T tubules

A

Tunnels that lead to the middle of the cell; allows an action potential to move from the membrane to deep into the cell

203
Q

Sarcoplasmic reticular

A

The ER of the muscle cell/fiber; makes proteins; stores and releases calcium

204
Q

Protein lines in the sarcomere

A
  1. M line
  2. Z line
  3. Thick filaments
  4. Thin filaments
205
Q

M line

A

In the middle of the sarcomere

206
Q

Z line

A

There are two; one on each end of the sarcomere

207
Q

Thick filaments

A

Attaches to the M line and extends towards the Z line

208
Q

Thin filaments

A

Attaches to the Z lines and points towards the M line

209
Q

Zone of overlap

A

Where the thick and thin filaments overlap

210
Q

Sliding filament theory

A

In order for a contraction to occur, thin filaments must slide along the thick filaments towards the M line

211
Q

Myosin

A

The only protein that makes up thick filaments

212
Q

Parts of a myosin

A
  1. Myosin tail
  2. Myosin head
  3. Hinge
213
Q

Power stroke

A

Describes the movement of the myosin head; always pulls the thin filaments towards the M line

214
Q

Hinge

A

Connects the head to the tail and allows movement

215
Q

Proteins that make thin filaments

A
  1. G-actin
  2. Tropomyosin
  3. Troponin
216
Q

G-actin

A

Has an active site

217
Q

F-actin

A

Made of many G-actin

218
Q

Active site

A

Where the myosin head contacts the thin filaments and creates a cross bridge

219
Q

Tropomyosin

A

Blocks the active site

220
Q

Troponin

A

Moves the tropomyosin to unblock the active site

221
Q

Things troponin interacts with/touches

A
  1. G-actin
  2. Tropomyosin
  3. Calcium
222
Q

Troponin will only pull tropomyosin off G-actin if there is what

A

Calcium

223
Q

Neuromuscular junction

A

A motor neuron forms a synapse with a muscle cell

224
Q

Cholinergic

A

Describes a neuron that secretes Acetylcholine

225
Q

Steps in initiating a muscle contraction

A
  1. Acetylcholine (Ach) is released from the synapse and binds to receptors
  2. Action potential (Ach) reaches a T tubule to bring it deep into the cell
  3. Action potential reaches the sacroplasmic reticulum and it releases calcium (Ca2+)
226
Q

The contraction cycle

A
  1. Calcium arrives
  2. Calcium binds to troponin and exposes the active site
  3. The myosin head forms a cross bridge with an active site
  4. The myosin head power strokes
  5. ATP is required to break the cross bridge and reset
227
Q

White matter

A

The region outside the spine; consists of the axons

228
Q

Why is white matter white

A

Because it is myelinated

229
Q

How are axons in white matter organized

A
  1. Short tract

2. Long tract

230
Q

Short tract

A

Axons that connect parts of the spine

231
Q

Long tract

A

Axons that connect the spine to the brain

232
Q

Types of long tracts

A
  1. Ascending

2. Descending

233
Q

Ascending long tracts

A

Carry information to the brain from the spine (sensory)

234
Q

Descending long tracts

A

Carry information to the spine from the brain (motor)

235
Q

Gray matter

A

The inside region of the spine; the cell bodies; the nissl bodies (ER) make it gray; this is the integration center; very organized/each section does something different

236
Q

How do the cell bodies in gray matter accumulate

A

Based on function; organize into nuclei

237
Q

Nucleus

A

Cell bodies organize themselves into different nuclei based on their function

238
Q

Meninges

A

Protects the spine from the vertebrae in case of injury; the “air bags”

239
Q

Dura mater

A

Meninge; The outermost membrane; “tough mother”

240
Q

Epidural space

A

Space between dura mater and vertebrae that is filled with adipose tissue

241
Q

Arachnoid mater

A

Meninge; The middle membrane

242
Q

Pia mater

A

Meninge; The deepest membrane; wraps directly around the spine

243
Q

Subarachnoid space

A

Space between arachnoid mater and pia mater; filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

244
Q

Main function of the brain stem

A

Controls unconscious thought; visceral function/autonomic function

245
Q

Medulla oblongata

A

Directly connected to the spinal cord; all sensory information goes through the medulla before going to the brain

246
Q

How is the medulla oblongata separated

A

It is separated into different nuclei

247
Q

Nuclei of the medulla

A
  1. Cardiovascular centers
  2. Respiratory rhythimicity centers
  3. Solitary nucleus
248
Q

Cardiovascular centers

A

Controls heart function; autonomic

249
Q

Parts in the cardiovascular centers

A
  1. Cardioacceleratory center

2. Cardioinhibitory center

250
Q

Cardioacceleratory center

A

Enhances heart function; uses sympathetic neurons (fight or flight)

251
Q

Cardioinhibitory center

A

Inhibits heart function; uses parasynthetic neurons (rest and digest)

252
Q

How does the cardiovascular center know which center to use

A
  1. Baroreceptors

2. Chemoreceptors

253
Q

Baroreceptors

A

Measure blood pressure and sends that information to the CNS

254
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

Monitors the chemical content of blood

255
Q

What chemicals in blood do chemoreceptors monitor

A

Oxygen and carbon dioxide

256
Q

What does the medulla decide to do if chemoreceptors detect that carbon deoxide levels are too high

A

It uses sympathetic neurons to pump blood faster to get carbon dioxide out of the blood faster

257
Q

Respiratory rhythmicity center

A

Controls respiration rate; stimulates muscles that make us inhale and relaxes them to exhale

258
Q

Why are the respiratory rhythmicity center and cardiovascular centers right next to each other

A

Because they work together

259
Q

What cant the respiratory rhythmicity center do

A

Decide when to inhale/exhale

260
Q

What tells the respiratory rhythmicity center when to inhale/exhale

A

The pons

261
Q

Solitary nucleus

A

Is a relay station; takes in sensory information from different places and makes sure that that information gets sent to the right centers; takes in information from visceral functions then sends it to the correct nuclei centers

262
Q

Pons

A

Controls muscle movements of the face

263
Q

Respiratory center (of the pons)

A

A nuclei in pons

264
Q

Parts in the respiratory center of the pons

A
  1. Apneustic center

2. Pneumotaxic center

265
Q

Apneustic center

A

Responsible for causing respiratory muscles to contract/inhale

266
Q

What does the apneustic center not know how to do

A

When to relax respiratory muscles in order to exhale

267
Q

Pneumotaxic center

A

Silences the apneustic center in order to exhale/relax

268
Q

What controls the respiratory centers in the medulla

A

The respiratory centers in the pons

269
Q

The two lobes of the cerebellum

A
  1. Anterior

2. Posterior

270
Q

What is in the cerebellum

A

Grey and white matter

271
Q

Cerebellar cortex

A

The outer part; the grey matter

272
Q

Purkinje cells

A

Neurons cells only found in the cerebellum; has a large system of dendrites

273
Q

What is the difference between regular neurons and purkinje cells

A

Purkinje cells have a more extensive/larger system of dendrites

274
Q

What kind of information do the purkinje cells take in

A

Information about proprioception

275
Q

Proprioception

A

Knowing where you are in time and space

276
Q

Proprioceptors

A

Send information to the cerebellum about where you are in time and space

277
Q

What is the main function of the cerebellum

A

Controlling fine tuned movements that are learned

278
Q

Corpora quadrigemina

A

Collection of 4 nuclei in the midbrain that control reflexes of the head and neck in response to stimuli

279
Q

Superior colliculus

A

The top pair of corpora quadrigemina; controls reflex movements in response to visual stimuli

280
Q

Inferior colliculus

A

The bottom pair of corpora quadrigemina; controls reflex movements in response to auditory stimuli

281
Q

Red nucleus

A

Has a large blood supply; gives unconscious control of skeletal muscle; gives us resting muscle tone; sends out more commands then we need

282
Q

Resting muscle tone

A

Even at rest, there is some tension generated in certain skeletal muscle; mainly for posture

283
Q

Substantia nigra

A

Inhibits parts of the red nucleus from contracting the extra muscles that we don’t need to be contracted

284
Q

Dopaminergic neurons

A

Neurons that extend from the substantia nigra to the red nucleus; secretes dopamine onto the red nucleus to inhibit it

285
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Lowest on diecephalon; links the neural system and the endocrine system

286
Q

Neuroendocrine

A

The hypothalamus is neuroendocrine; there are neurons that secrete molecules/hormones into the blood instead of into a synapse

287
Q

Hormones that the hypothalamus releases

A
  1. Releasing hormones

2. Inhibiting hormones

288
Q

Release hormones

A

Causes the pituitary gland to release hormones

289
Q

Inhibiting hormones

A

Causes the pituitary gland to stop releasing hormones

290
Q

Supraoptic nucleus

A

A nuclei of the hypothalamus; makes anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)

291
Q

Anti-diuretic hormone

A

Helps you retain water

292
Q

Paraventricular nucleus

A

A nuclei of the hypothalamus; Makes oxytocin

293
Q

Suprachiasmatic nucleus

A

A nuclei of the hypothalamus; controls the function of the pineal gland; controls when it secretes melatonin

294
Q

What causes more secretion of melatonin

A

Light; visual sensory information

295
Q

Preoptic area

A

A nuclei of the hypothalamus; controls body temperature by controlling blood flow

296
Q

What does the preoptic area do if body temperature is too high

A

It dilates blood vessels that are superficial and near the skin and constricts blood vessels near the torso

297
Q

What does the preoptic area do if body temperature is too low

A

It constricts blood vessels near the skin and dilates blood vessels near the torso

298
Q

Cerebrum

A

Home to conscious thought; the main part of the brain

299
Q

What surrounds the cerebrum

A

Pia mater, arachnoid, and dura mater

300
Q

Dural Sinus

A

Instead of an epidural space like the spine, the cerebrum has this; circulates blood and CSF

301
Q

Faix cerebrii

A

Extension of the dura mater that sits between the two hemispheres

302
Q

Faix cerebelli

A

Extension of the dura mater that sits between the hemispheres of the cerebellum

303
Q

Gyrus

A

One tube of the cerebrum

304
Q

Sulcus

A

The gaps between the gyri

305
Q

The lobes of the cerebrum are the same as

A

The bones that cover them

306
Q

Instead of sutures, what are the lobes separates by?

A

Important sulci

307
Q

Central sulcus

A

Between frontal and parietal lobes

308
Q

Lateral sulcus

A

Between frontal and temporal lobes

309
Q

Parieto-occipital sulcus

A

Between parietal and occipital

310
Q

Cerebrum cortex

A

Where grey matter is; superficial

311
Q

Where is white matter in the cerebrum

A

Deep

312
Q

Classes of white matter

A
  1. Association fibers
  2. Commissural fibers
  3. Projection fibers
313
Q

Association fibers

A

Axons that carry information to parts of the same hemisphere

314
Q

Types of association fibers

A
  1. Arcuate fibers

2. Longitudinal fibers

315
Q

Arcuate fibers

A

Allow communication between two gyrite that are right next to each other

316
Q

Longitudinal fibers

A

Axons that allow communication between two distant parts of the same hemisphere

317
Q

Commissural fibers

A

Axons that allow communication between the two hemispheres

318
Q

Locations of commissural fibers

A
  1. Anterior commissure

2. Corpus callosum

319
Q

Projection fibers

A

Axons that allow communication between the cerebrum and the rest of the body (spine, brain stem)

320
Q

What do all projection fibers run through

A

The thalamus (and medulla oblongata)

321
Q

How is grey matter organized in the cerebrum

A

In nuclei that are in strips that run across the cerebrum over the left and right hemispheres

322
Q

Primary sensory cortex

A

Nuclei of the cerebrum; “postcentral gyrus”; Receives all somatic sensory information; does not interpret that information

323
Q

Homunculus

A

“Map” of the parts of a nuclei and what they effect/control

324
Q

Association areas

A

Interpret the information; where we store memories about sensations

325
Q

What do all cortex have?

A

An association area

326
Q

Primary motor cortex

A

“Precentral gyrus”; All of your conscious muscle movement stems from here; Recieves all motor sensory information; does not interpret it

327
Q

Auditory cortex

A

Receives sensory information about sound

328
Q

Auditory association area

A

Interprets the auditory information

329
Q

What would happen if a stroke effected the visual cortex

A

They wouldn’t be able to read

330
Q

Somatic motor association area

A

“Premotor cortex”; stores memories about muscle movements; Interprets the information about motor movements; controls the primary motor cortex; these are learned movements

A&P (13 decks)

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