Final Lecture Exam Flashcards
Hierarchy of Life
- Molecular/Chemical Level
- Cellular Level
- Tissue Level
- Organ Level
- Organ System
- Organism
Homeostasis
Having a stable internal environtment
Static equilibrium
If your body temperature stayed the same
Dynamic equilibrium
Not the same everyday (changes). There is a range that is accepted
Autoregulation
Regulation without help
Examples of autoregulation
Stomach
- Food puts off homeostasis, so it undergoes homeostasis to digest it
Running
- Blood to the heart increases by itself
Feed-forward
The ability to predict a change in homeostasis and begin to prepare for it before it happens
Examples of feed-forward
Your hungry and walk past a restaurant, your stomach growls, then it makes acid and enzymes to prepare for food
Types of Feedback (Loops)
- Positive feedback loop
2. Negative feedback loop
Positive feedback loop
Body’s response to stimulus is to exaggerate that stimulus; Used in situations where the only way to get back to homeostasis is to push through as fast as possible
Examples of positive feedback loops
Low body temperature.
Body’s response is to make it lower
Labor and Delivery
- Stimulus is cervical stretch
- Body responds by making oxytocin (by the hypothalamus)
- Oxytocin causes cervix to stretch
- Pitocin (being induced) speeds up positive feedback loop; oxytocin
Negative feedback loop
Body’s response to a stimulus is to revert the stimulus; The most important/most common type of regulation
What is the body’s first response to a stimulus
Recognizing the stimulus
Receptors
Recognizes a stimulus and sends information to the integration center
Integration center
(The brain, usually) Takes in information and determines if a response is necessary; If a response is necessary it sends information to the effector
Types of macromolecules
- Proteins
- Lipids
- Carbohydrates
- Nucleic acids
What is the monomer that is used to make proteins?
Amino acids
What is the monomer for lipids
Fatty acids
What is the monomer of carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
What is the monomer of nucleic acids
Nucleotides
Functions of proteins
Help with structure
Function of lipids
Store energy
Function of carbohydrates
Main source of energy
Function of nucleic acids
Make up genetic information
Activation energy
Energy that is needed to get a chemical reaction moving
Enzymes
Protein catalysts that our body uses that can be reused over and over
What is the function of enzymes
To make chemical reactions happen fast enough to maintain life
What do enzymes do
Lower the amount of activation energy required
Active site
Pockets that are formed from the what that the protein forms
A protein is only functional if
It folds into the correct shape
What must happen for a protein to be functional
It must turn into a 3D structure
Factors that influence enzyme activity
- pH
2. Temperature
When do enzymes not work as well
- Colder temperature
2. Hotter temperature
What happens to enzymes in colder temperatures
They slow down
What happens to enzymes in hotter temperature
It denatures
Denature
The 3D structure breaks down and it reverts to its primary structure
What happens when an enzyme denatures
The hydrophobic amino acids go into the water and are unprotected
Example of activation energy
Stirring sugar in water
Triglyceride
3 fatty acids (tri) that are connected with a glycerol (glyceride)
Triglyceride function
- Energy
- Used to store fatty acids (they are stored as triglycerides)
- Insulation
- Protection
(know 3)
Phospholipid
2 fatty acids attached to a phosphate group; amphipathic
Phospholipid function
Used in the plasma membrane to create a phospholipid bilayer and protect the hydrophobic parts (heads are hydrophilic, tails are hydrophobic)
Phospholipids are
Amphipathic
Amphipathic
Parts of the molecule are hydrophobic and parts are hydrophilic
Three ways phospholipids organize
- Hydrophilic heads on water surface, tails sticking out
- Circle with hydrophilic heads on the outside, tails are protected on the inside
- Bilayer
Bilayer
The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer
What molecules pass through the plasma membrane freely
Hydrophobic
Most lipids are
Hydrophobic
Steroid function
Used for communcation
Nucleic acids function
Used to store information
What do you need for simple diffusion to occur?
A concentration gradient
What molecules move through the plasma membrane through simple diffusion
Small, hydrophobic molecules
What molecules use facilitated diffusion
Large, charged molecules because they are hydrophilic
Osmosis
Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane
Osmotic pressure
The higher the solute concentration, the higher the osmotic pressure. The side with the more solute has osmotic pressure. This describes the amount of pull that a solution has on water
Example of osmotic pressure
- High osmotic pressure is needed by kidneys to pull water out of urine
- Small intestine pulls water out of food waste, so it needs high osmotic pressure
Tonicity
Describes the effect that a solution has on a cell
Isotonic
Describes a solution that has solute that matches the inside. Water moves in and out for every water molecule that goes out, another goes in, creating equilibrium
Hypotonic
Less solute in the solution than inside the cell, or more solute inside the cell than the outside (it is plump)
Hypertonic
More solute outside the cell than inside
Active transport
Moves things against the concentration gradient, from low to high; requires energy because it is not “natural”
Sodium-potassium exchange pump
There is more sodium outside than inside the cell, and more potassium inside than outside; They are moved against the concentration gradient using ATP
- an example of active transport
Endocytosis
Membrane makes a “bud” and pulls something in after it pinches off into the cell
Types of endocytosis
- Pinocytosis
- Phagocytosis
- Receptor mediated
Pinocytosis
Constantly randomly testing fluid from the environment that can be useful or useless
Phagocytosis
Pulls in specific things by reaching out and capturing things from the environment
Receptor mediated
Extremely specific because it has receptor proteins that have active sites that are specific for binding to molecules
Reflex
Automatic, reproducible response to a stimulus
How do you detect a stimulus?
By using a RECEPTOR that takes information about a stimulus and sends it to the INTEGRATION CENTER, which determines if the stimulus requires a response, if a response is needed it sends the information to an EFFECTOR which responds to the stimulus
Events in a reflex arc
- Arrival of stimulus and activation of receptor
- Activation of sensory neuron
- Information processing in the CNS
- Activation of a motor neuron
- Response by effector
Pain/withdraw reflex
Moves affected parts of the body away from the stimulus
Peripheral nervous system
All the neural tissue that is not in the brain or spinal cord
Types of PNS
- Afferent nervous system
2. Efferent nervous system
Afferent nervous system
System of neurons that brings sensory information from the body into the CNS
Efferent nervous system
Carries motor command information from the CNS to the body
Types of Efferent nervous system
- Somatic nervous system
2. Autonomic nervous system
Somatic nervous system
Carries efferent/motor commands to skeletal muscle
Autonomic nervous system
Controls everything that we move unconsciously
Function of the PNS
To bring sensory information to and from the CNS
Types of autonomic nervous system
- Sympathetic nervous system
2. Parasympathetic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system
“Fight or flight”; increases heart and respiratory rate and shuts down the urinary system and digestive system to save energy
Parasympathetic nervous system
“Rest and digest”; stimulates the digestive and urinary systems, decreases heart and respiratory rate
Cell body
Soma
Parts of cell body
- Nucleus
2. Perikaryon
What is found in the perikaryon
All of the organelles that would be found in a normal cell
What does the perikaryon lack that other normal cells have, and what does this cause?
Centrioles, which makes neurons unable to divide
Nissl bodies
The equivalent of the rough ER in neurons; has ribosomes, which link amino acids and makes proteins, that cover the outside and makes it “rough”; causes the grey color
Axon hillock
This creates an action potential if a stimulus is strong enough for a response
Axolemma
The plasma membrane of the axon
Action potential
An electrical current
Synaptic terminal
The end of the telodendria; where the neuron communicates with another cell
Telodendria
The branches of the axon
Synaptic cleft/Synapse
The small gap between the synaptic terminal and the next tell
Membrane potential
An electrical charge; the charge on the inside of the membrane RELATIVE to the charge on the outside
Resting membrane potential
The resting phase of a neuron; when you don’t notice any stimuli from the environment
What is the mV for resting potential?
-70 mV
What things contribute to the negative charge
- Leak channels
- Sodium-potassium pump
- Intracellular proteins
Leak channel
Allows for the facilitated diffusion of sodium and potassium ions
Where are there more sodium ion?
Outside the membrane
Where are there more potassium ions?
Inside the membrane
Sodium and potassium have ____ charges
Positive
Potassium leaks ____, sodium leaks ____
Out; in
Does sodium or potassium leak faster?
Potassium leaks out faster than sodium leaks in
Potassium leaking out faster than sodium leaking in causes what
This lowers the charge inside the cell making it more negative
Sodium-potassium pump
Active transport; moves sodium out and potassium in; uses energy because it moves things against the gradient
Does sodium or potassium move in/out more?
More sodium is moving out than potassium is moving in
Intracellular proteins
Located right on the inside of the membrane; negative charge; makes the inside more negative than the outside
Graded potential
A stimulus that acts on a neuron at rest; a deviation from the resting membrane potential (more + or more -)
Types of graded potentials
- Depolarizing graded potential
2. Hyperpolarizing graded potential
Depolarizing graded potential
A deviation that makes membrane potential more positive/more like the outside
Depolarizing graded potential is also called
Excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP)
Hyperpolarizing graded potential
A deviation that makes membrane potential more negative/less like the outside
Hyperpolarizing graded potential is also called
Inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP)
Summation
Adding more than 1 graded potential together; used to get to threshold
Types of summation
- Temporal summation
2. Spatial summation
Temporal summation
When we summate graded potentials from a single synapse
Explain temporal summation
One telodendrian synapses with another neuron. An action potential is sent through the telodendrian and neurotransmitters are sent through the synapse; happens one after another faster than the sodium-potassium pump can push out
Can you summate EPSP and IPSP at the same time in temporal summation?
No, you can only summate EPSP OR IPSP, not both at the same time; Because one synapse can only send one type of graded potential (EPSP or IPSP) and they would just cancel each other out
Spatial summation
When we summate graded potentials from multiple synapses; the sodium mixes; the synapses must be close together
What does summation do for graded potentials
Graded potentials are weak by themselves, so we have to summate them to reach threshold
Action potential
How neurons communicate; when the stimulus is so strong that the neuron gets to threshold, it will create this
Threshold
When a stimulus is strong enough to take it out of resting membrane potential; the point where a stimulus is so strong that it activates a sensory neuron
What is the graded potential “battle”?
EPSP is trying to bring sodium in and reach threshold while the sodium-potassium pumps are trying to pump sodium out and get away from threshold and back to resting membrane potential
How do you reach threshold?
There has to be more sodium coming in than the sodium-potassium pump can push back out
Volted-gated channel
A membrane potential (mV) causes it to open or close; has two gates: activation gate on outside of cell, inactivation gate on inside of cell
What happens to a volted-gated channel once you reach threshold?
The gates open and allows sodium to rush through until the membrane potential reaches 30 mV
When does the inactivation gate close?
When the membrane potential reaches 30 and stays closed until the neuron goes back to resting membrane potential
What happens once the membrane reaches -70mV (volted-gated channel)?
The inactivation gate opens and the activation gate closes
Describe the graph and what happens when the membrane potential reaches threshold
When the membrane potential reaches threshold, action potential begins and the membrane potential goes more and more positive, then it goes back to resting membrane potential
What can we tell from this graph?
- In this graph there is an EPSP that depolarizes
2. It must be summated because one EPSP will move it only about .5 mV
What happens when the cell reaches threshold?
Volted gated sodium channels open
Once the membrane reaches 30+ what happens?
- The inactivation gate of the volted gated sodium channel closes
- Volted gated potassium channels open and potassium rushed out
What happens at about -70mV?
Volted gated potassium channels are closed
What is happening at 4 on the graph? (mV moves below -70mV briefly after the action potential comes back down and then moves back to resting membrane potential)
The potassium channels take a long time to close, so they start closing down early causing it to lose a little too much potassium and it hyperpolarizes, or becomes more negative
Absolute refractory period
The period of time from when the volted gated sodium channels open until they close and are inactivated
Why is it impossible to fire an action potential during the absolute refractory period?
Because the volted gated sodium channels are either being used or inactivated
Relative refractory period
The period of time when the membrane is hyperpolarized and below resting membrane potential
Why can you fire an action potential during the relative refractory period?
Because the volted gated sodium channels are reset and can be used again, but the stimulus has to be stronger than normal because the membrane potential is further than usual from threshold
What happens when the sodium diffuses, going both up and down the membrane, and it goes backwards?
The membrane is in absolute refractory period and can’t fire another action potential
What is the importance of refractory periods?
They keep action potentials moving in one direction
Propagation
How an action potential moves from the cell body to the synapse
Continuous propagation
When every single part of the axon reaches threshold; not very fast
Saltatory propagation
Skips through the axon and doesn’t touch every part of the axon; fastest way
What makes saltatory propagation possible?
Myelin
Diaphysis
The shaft of a long bone
Epiphysis
The end of the shaft
Metaphysis
Where bones grow longer; where the diaphysis connects to the epiphysis
Types of bones that make up a long bone
- Compact bone
2. Spongy bone
Compact bone
Dense, solid bone; extremely strong in one plane; surrounds the diaphysis for protection
Medullary cavity
The hollow space of the diaphysis; Bone marrow
Osteon
Makes up compact bone; the entire circular structure
Central canal
In compact bone; has blood vessels (usually an artery and a vein); brings in nutrients and takes away waste products
Concentric lamellae
In compact bone; each circle that makes up an osteon
Osteocyte
In compact bone; The dark spots in a concentric lamellae that makes bone until it traps itself in a lacuna
Lacuna
Compact bone; Where the osteocytes trap themselves
Canaliculi
Compact bone; Tunnels that connects all of the osteocytes together; made by osteocytes to get nutrients from the central canal
Interstitial lamellae
Compact bone; Bone tissue that fills in the gaps between the osteons; made from old osteons that have been recycled
Circumferential lamellae
Compact bone; Allows bones to grow in diameter; surrounds an osteon completely; created from stress on the bone and makes the bone bigger
Periosteum
Compact bone; A layer of connective tissue that surrounds the bone; allows tissue to connect to bone
Perforating fibers
Compact bone; Collagen fibers that embeds in the bone and prevents the periosteum from pulling away when the muscles pull on it; originates in periosteum
Spongy bone
Surrounds the epiphyses; strong in multiple planes
Trabeculae
Fibers that make the web-like structure of the osteons in spongy bone
Osteoblasts
Osteoprogenitor cells mature/form into this; bone forming cell
How osteoblasts create bone
- Osteoblasts create osteoid
2. Osteoblasts raise calcium above its solubility limit
Osteoclasts
Formed from a macrophage; this cell type degrades/breaks down bone
How do osteoclasts and osteoblasts work
They work together in equilibrium
Osstification
The process of replacing other tissues with bone
Two forms of osstification:
- Endochondral osstification
2. Intramembranous osstification
Endochondral osstification
The formation of long bones
Intramembranous osstification
The formation of non long bones
Chondrocytes
Cells that make hyaline cartilage
What happens once blood vessels grow
Nutients and bone cells (mesenchymal stem cells that become osteoblasts and macrophages that become osteoclasts) begin to be delivered into the center of the cartilage
How is cartilage turned into bone?
- Osteoblasts turn all of the cartilage into bone
2. Osteoclasts carve out the medulla to make bone hollow
How is intramembranous ossification different from endochondral ossification?
Flat bones do not start off as cartilage
How are flat bones made?
Osteocytes make bone, then osteoclasts carve out the bone and make it into a specific shape
Types of post-developmental bone growth
- Appositional growth
2. Epiphyseal growth
Appositional growth
Increase in bone diameter
Epiphyseal growth
Increase in bone length
Where does appositional growth happen and how does it happen?
At the circumferential lamellae, osteoblasts add more circumferential lamellae layers
What is different about appositional growth and epiphyseal growth?
Appositional growth occurs throughout your lifetime, epiphyseal growth begins at birth and lasts throughout the end of puberty
What causes an increase in appositional growth
Stress on a bone
What happens on the lower part (B) of the epiphyseal cartilage?
Osteoblast turns cartilage into bone
What happens on the upper part (A) of the epiphyseal cartilage?
Chondrocytes make new cartilage, as fast (almost) as the osteocytes are making bone
What is normal blood calcium level
8.5-11mg/dL
Parathyroid gland
Regulates blood calcium level
Parathyroid cells
Secrete parathyroid hormone
What does the parathyroid hormone do?
It targets
- Bone
- Intestines/Digestive system
- Kidneys
How does the parathyroid hormone effect bone?
It increases osteoclasts and inhibits osteoblasts
How does the parathyroid hormone effect intestines/digestive system?
It increases calcium absorption from food which increases blood calcium levels
How does the parathyroid hormone effect kidneys?
It increases calcium absorption in the kidneys so that we don’t lose calcium in the urine
How do all of the effects of the parathyroid hormone work together?
They all happen at the same time
If blood calcium levels get too high, what tissue gets it back to homeostasis and what does it secrete
Thyroid gland releases calcitonin
Function of skeletal muscle
- Gives us voluntary movement
- Generates body heat
- Stores nutrients (Glycogen)
Epimysium
In skeletal muscle; connective tissue that surrounds the muscle; separates each muscle
Perimysium
In skeletal muscle; Where all blood supply and nerves are found; separates the muscle fascicle
Muscle fascicle
In skeletal muscle; one bundle of fibers
Muscle fibers
In skeletal muscle; composes the inside of a muscle fascicle
Endomysium
In skeletal muscle; connective tissue that separates muscle fibers in a muscle fascicle
Sarcolemma
The plasma membrane of a muscle cell/fiber; generates and propagates action potentials
Myofibril
Makes up a muscle fiber/cell
Sarcomere
Makes up myofibril that contains proteins
Transverse or T tubules
Tunnels that lead to the middle of the cell; allows an action potential to move from the membrane to deep into the cell
Sarcoplasmic reticular
The ER of the muscle cell/fiber; makes proteins; stores and releases calcium
Protein lines in the sarcomere
- M line
- Z line
- Thick filaments
- Thin filaments
M line
In the middle of the sarcomere
Z line
There are two; one on each end of the sarcomere
Thick filaments
Attaches to the M line and extends towards the Z line
Thin filaments
Attaches to the Z lines and points towards the M line
Zone of overlap
Where the thick and thin filaments overlap
Sliding filament theory
In order for a contraction to occur, thin filaments must slide along the thick filaments towards the M line
Myosin
The only protein that makes up thick filaments
Parts of a myosin
- Myosin tail
- Myosin head
- Hinge
Power stroke
Describes the movement of the myosin head; always pulls the thin filaments towards the M line
Hinge
Connects the head to the tail and allows movement
Proteins that make thin filaments
- G-actin
- Tropomyosin
- Troponin
G-actin
Has an active site
F-actin
Made of many G-actin
Active site
Where the myosin head contacts the thin filaments and creates a cross bridge
Tropomyosin
Blocks the active site
Troponin
Moves the tropomyosin to unblock the active site
Things troponin interacts with/touches
- G-actin
- Tropomyosin
- Calcium
Troponin will only pull tropomyosin off G-actin if there is what
Calcium
Neuromuscular junction
A motor neuron forms a synapse with a muscle cell
Cholinergic
Describes a neuron that secretes Acetylcholine
Steps in initiating a muscle contraction
- Acetylcholine (Ach) is released from the synapse and binds to receptors
- Action potential (Ach) reaches a T tubule to bring it deep into the cell
- Action potential reaches the sacroplasmic reticulum and it releases calcium (Ca2+)
The contraction cycle
- Calcium arrives
- Calcium binds to troponin and exposes the active site
- The myosin head forms a cross bridge with an active site
- The myosin head power strokes
- ATP is required to break the cross bridge and reset
White matter
The region outside the spine; consists of the axons
Why is white matter white
Because it is myelinated
How are axons in white matter organized
- Short tract
2. Long tract
Short tract
Axons that connect parts of the spine
Long tract
Axons that connect the spine to the brain
Types of long tracts
- Ascending
2. Descending
Ascending long tracts
Carry information to the brain from the spine (sensory)
Descending long tracts
Carry information to the spine from the brain (motor)
Gray matter
The inside region of the spine; the cell bodies; the nissl bodies (ER) make it gray; this is the integration center; very organized/each section does something different
How do the cell bodies in gray matter accumulate
Based on function; organize into nuclei
Nucleus
Cell bodies organize themselves into different nuclei based on their function
Meninges
Protects the spine from the vertebrae in case of injury; the “air bags”
Dura mater
Meninge; The outermost membrane; “tough mother”
Epidural space
Space between dura mater and vertebrae that is filled with adipose tissue
Arachnoid mater
Meninge; The middle membrane
Pia mater
Meninge; The deepest membrane; wraps directly around the spine
Subarachnoid space
Space between arachnoid mater and pia mater; filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Main function of the brain stem
Controls unconscious thought; visceral function/autonomic function
Medulla oblongata
Directly connected to the spinal cord; all sensory information goes through the medulla before going to the brain
How is the medulla oblongata separated
It is separated into different nuclei
Nuclei of the medulla
- Cardiovascular centers
- Respiratory rhythimicity centers
- Solitary nucleus
Cardiovascular centers
Controls heart function; autonomic
Parts in the cardiovascular centers
- Cardioacceleratory center
2. Cardioinhibitory center
Cardioacceleratory center
Enhances heart function; uses sympathetic neurons (fight or flight)
Cardioinhibitory center
Inhibits heart function; uses parasynthetic neurons (rest and digest)
How does the cardiovascular center know which center to use
- Baroreceptors
2. Chemoreceptors
Baroreceptors
Measure blood pressure and sends that information to the CNS
Chemoreceptors
Monitors the chemical content of blood
What chemicals in blood do chemoreceptors monitor
Oxygen and carbon dioxide
What does the medulla decide to do if chemoreceptors detect that carbon deoxide levels are too high
It uses sympathetic neurons to pump blood faster to get carbon dioxide out of the blood faster
Respiratory rhythmicity center
Controls respiration rate; stimulates muscles that make us inhale and relaxes them to exhale
Why are the respiratory rhythmicity center and cardiovascular centers right next to each other
Because they work together
What cant the respiratory rhythmicity center do
Decide when to inhale/exhale
What tells the respiratory rhythmicity center when to inhale/exhale
The pons
Solitary nucleus
Is a relay station; takes in sensory information from different places and makes sure that that information gets sent to the right centers; takes in information from visceral functions then sends it to the correct nuclei centers
Pons
Controls muscle movements of the face
Respiratory center (of the pons)
A nuclei in pons
Parts in the respiratory center of the pons
- Apneustic center
2. Pneumotaxic center
Apneustic center
Responsible for causing respiratory muscles to contract/inhale
What does the apneustic center not know how to do
When to relax respiratory muscles in order to exhale
Pneumotaxic center
Silences the apneustic center in order to exhale/relax
What controls the respiratory centers in the medulla
The respiratory centers in the pons
The two lobes of the cerebellum
- Anterior
2. Posterior
What is in the cerebellum
Grey and white matter
Cerebellar cortex
The outer part; the grey matter
Purkinje cells
Neurons cells only found in the cerebellum; has a large system of dendrites
What is the difference between regular neurons and purkinje cells
Purkinje cells have a more extensive/larger system of dendrites
What kind of information do the purkinje cells take in
Information about proprioception
Proprioception
Knowing where you are in time and space
Proprioceptors
Send information to the cerebellum about where you are in time and space
What is the main function of the cerebellum
Controlling fine tuned movements that are learned
Corpora quadrigemina
Collection of 4 nuclei in the midbrain that control reflexes of the head and neck in response to stimuli
Superior colliculus
The top pair of corpora quadrigemina; controls reflex movements in response to visual stimuli
Inferior colliculus
The bottom pair of corpora quadrigemina; controls reflex movements in response to auditory stimuli
Red nucleus
Has a large blood supply; gives unconscious control of skeletal muscle; gives us resting muscle tone; sends out more commands then we need
Resting muscle tone
Even at rest, there is some tension generated in certain skeletal muscle; mainly for posture
Substantia nigra
Inhibits parts of the red nucleus from contracting the extra muscles that we don’t need to be contracted
Dopaminergic neurons
Neurons that extend from the substantia nigra to the red nucleus; secretes dopamine onto the red nucleus to inhibit it
Hypothalamus
Lowest on diecephalon; links the neural system and the endocrine system
Neuroendocrine
The hypothalamus is neuroendocrine; there are neurons that secrete molecules/hormones into the blood instead of into a synapse
Hormones that the hypothalamus releases
- Releasing hormones
2. Inhibiting hormones
Release hormones
Causes the pituitary gland to release hormones
Inhibiting hormones
Causes the pituitary gland to stop releasing hormones
Supraoptic nucleus
A nuclei of the hypothalamus; makes anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
Anti-diuretic hormone
Helps you retain water
Paraventricular nucleus
A nuclei of the hypothalamus; Makes oxytocin
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
A nuclei of the hypothalamus; controls the function of the pineal gland; controls when it secretes melatonin
What causes more secretion of melatonin
Light; visual sensory information
Preoptic area
A nuclei of the hypothalamus; controls body temperature by controlling blood flow
What does the preoptic area do if body temperature is too high
It dilates blood vessels that are superficial and near the skin and constricts blood vessels near the torso
What does the preoptic area do if body temperature is too low
It constricts blood vessels near the skin and dilates blood vessels near the torso
Cerebrum
Home to conscious thought; the main part of the brain
What surrounds the cerebrum
Pia mater, arachnoid, and dura mater
Dural Sinus
Instead of an epidural space like the spine, the cerebrum has this; circulates blood and CSF
Faix cerebrii
Extension of the dura mater that sits between the two hemispheres
Faix cerebelli
Extension of the dura mater that sits between the hemispheres of the cerebellum
Gyrus
One tube of the cerebrum
Sulcus
The gaps between the gyri
The lobes of the cerebrum are the same as
The bones that cover them
Instead of sutures, what are the lobes separates by?
Important sulci
Central sulcus
Between frontal and parietal lobes
Lateral sulcus
Between frontal and temporal lobes
Parieto-occipital sulcus
Between parietal and occipital
Cerebrum cortex
Where grey matter is; superficial
Where is white matter in the cerebrum
Deep
Classes of white matter
- Association fibers
- Commissural fibers
- Projection fibers
Association fibers
Axons that carry information to parts of the same hemisphere
Types of association fibers
- Arcuate fibers
2. Longitudinal fibers
Arcuate fibers
Allow communication between two gyrite that are right next to each other
Longitudinal fibers
Axons that allow communication between two distant parts of the same hemisphere
Commissural fibers
Axons that allow communication between the two hemispheres
Locations of commissural fibers
- Anterior commissure
2. Corpus callosum
Projection fibers
Axons that allow communication between the cerebrum and the rest of the body (spine, brain stem)
What do all projection fibers run through
The thalamus (and medulla oblongata)
How is grey matter organized in the cerebrum
In nuclei that are in strips that run across the cerebrum over the left and right hemispheres
Primary sensory cortex
Nuclei of the cerebrum; “postcentral gyrus”; Receives all somatic sensory information; does not interpret that information
Homunculus
“Map” of the parts of a nuclei and what they effect/control
Association areas
Interpret the information; where we store memories about sensations
What do all cortex have?
An association area
Primary motor cortex
“Precentral gyrus”; All of your conscious muscle movement stems from here; Recieves all motor sensory information; does not interpret it
Auditory cortex
Receives sensory information about sound
Auditory association area
Interprets the auditory information
What would happen if a stroke effected the visual cortex
They wouldn’t be able to read
Somatic motor association area
“Premotor cortex”; stores memories about muscle movements; Interprets the information about motor movements; controls the primary motor cortex; these are learned movements
