Lecture - Exam 3 Flashcards
1
Q
what are the 2 main functions of blood
A
- carry respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes, and hormones
- helps body regulate temperature
2
Q
what is the blood volume in males
A
5-6 liters
3
Q
what is the blood volume in females
A
4-5 liters
4
Q
what are the 2 main components of blood
A
cellular and liquid components
5
Q
what is the cellular component of blood
A
formed elements = blood cells and cell fragments
6
Q
what is the liquid component of blood
A
plasma
7
Q
what is serum
A
plasma minus clotting proteins
8
Q
what type of tissue is blood
A
specialized connective tissue
9
Q
what is hematocrit
A
percent red blood cells
10
Q
what is the hematocrit of males
A
47% +/- 5%
11
Q
what is the hematocrit of females
A
42% +/- 5%
12
Q
what are the 2 ways that blood cell counts can be taken and which is more popular now
A
flow cytometry (laser) or impedance (electrical resistance)
now CBC can all be done with impedance
13
Q
what is plasma
A
a straw-colored, sticky fluid portion of blood
14
Q
how much of blood is plasma
A
about 55% of whole blood
15
Q
what is plasma made up of
A
about 90% water as well as ions, nutrients, wastes, and proteins (100 different substances)
16
Q
what are the 3 main protein types in blood plasma
A
albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen
17
Q
what does albumin do
A
most abundant protein, maintain osmotic pressure
18
Q
what are the 3 types of globulins
A
alpha, beta, and gamma
19
Q
what do alpha and beta globulins do
A
some transport metal ions (iron and copper) OR some transport lipids, including lipid hormones
20
Q
what do gamma globulins do
A
they act as antibodies (immunoglobulins)
21
Q
what do fibrinogens do
A
they are converted to fibrin, it is the major component of blood clots
22
Q
what are the 3 layers when separating blood components (by centrifuge)
A
55% plasma on top, <1% buffy coat, and 45% RBCs
buffy coat and RBCs make up the formed elements
23
Q
what are the 3 types of formed elements
A
erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and platelets
24
Q
when staining cells/cell fragments, what acidic dye is used and what color does it stain
A
eosin, stains pink
25
when staining cells/cell fragments, what basic dye is used and what color does it stain
hematoxylin or methylene blue, stains blue and purple
26
what is the function of erythrocytes (red blood cells (RBCs))
oxygen transporting cells
27
what is hemoglobin
an oxygen carrying protein in RBCs
28
how many RBCs are in females
4.3-5.2 million cells/cubic millimeter blood
29
how many RBCs are in males
5.2-5.8 million cells/cubic millimeter
30
what do mature RBCs lack
they have no organelles or nuclei
31
what is the shape of RBCs and why
biconcave shape, allows for 30% more surface area
32
where do RBCs originate
in the bone marrow
33
how long do RBCs live
100-120 days
34
how many white blood cells (WBCs) do people have on avaerage
7,500
35
what is the function of WBCs
protect the body from infectious microorganisms
36
where are WBCs found
outside the bloodstream in loose connective tissue
37
what is diapedesis
circulating leukocytes leave the capillaries by squeezing between endothelial cells
38
what are the 2 main types of WBCs
granulocytes and agranulocytes
39
what is the main difference between the 2 types of WBCs
granulocytes have enzyme filled vesicles in cytoplasm while agranulocytes lack vesicles
40
what are the 3 main types of granulocytes
neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
41
what is the more numerous type of leukocyte
neutrophils
42
what is the function of neutrophils
Phagocytize bacteria and release enzymes that kill bacteria
43
what does the nucleus look like in neutrophils
it is multi-lobed, has 2-6 lobes
44
what are neutrophils also known as
polymorphonucleated granulocytes (PMNs)
45
what are band cells
immature neutrophil cells don't have multi lobed nuclei but the mature cells do
46
when staining granules of neutrophils, what stain does it pick up
pick up both acidic and basic stains, appear neutral colored (azurophilic)
47
what much of WBCs do eosinophils make up
1-4% of all WBCs
48
what are the main functions of eosinophils
it is phagocytic:
1. turn off allergic reactions
2. help fight off parasitic infections
49
when staining granules of eosinophils, what stain does it pick up
stained by eosin, appears pink
50
what much of WBCs do basophils make up
about 0.5%
51
what does the nucleus look like in basophils
usually 2 lobes
52
what is the main function of basophils
inflammation mediation
53
what do basophils secrete to help inflammation mediation
histamine
54
when staining granules of basophilss, what stain does it pick up
stained by basic dyes, appears purple
55
what are the 2 main types of agranulocytes
lymphocytes and monocytes
56
what much of WBCs do lymphocytes make up
about 20-40%
57
T/F lymphocytes are the most important cells of the immune system
TRUE
58
what staining agranulocytes, what does it stain as
stains dark purple, the cytoplasm looks smooth
59
what are the 2 main classes of lymphocytes
T cells and B cells
60
what is the main function of T cells
attack foreign cells directly
61
what are the main functions of B cells
multiply to become plasma cells and secrete antibodies
62
is the nucleus volume/cytoplasm ration high or low in lymphocytes
Nucleus volume/cytoplasm ratio high (only small sliver of cytoplasm on one side)
63
what does the cytoplasm in lymphocytes stain
slightly blue or purple
64
what much of WBCs do monocytes make up
4-8%
65
what is the size of monocytes
it is the largest leukocyte
66
what is the nucleus shaped like in monocytes
kidney shaped
67
what is the main function of monocytes
they are phagocytic cells, transform into macrophages
68
where are monocytes
they leave they bloodstream and enter loose (areolar) connective tissue
69
what are platelets
cell fragments (NOT whole cells)
70
where do platelets come from
Break off from megakaryocytes in bone marrow
71
what is the main function of platelets
have vesicles containing molecules that help initiate the clotting of blood
72
what do platelets form and why
form platelet plug to prevent loss of blood from injured blood vessel
73
what activates the platelet plug/platelet aggregation
exposure to subendothelial collagen
74
what is hematopoiesis
process by which blood cells are formed
75
where do all blood cells originate
bone marrow
76
how many new blood cell are formed everyday
100 billion
77
what are the 2 types of marrow
red marrow and yellow marrow
78
what is red marrow
actively generates new blood cells
79
what different types of blood cells are in red marrow
different stages of developing blood cells because cells go through several maturation stages
80
where is red marrow found in adults
Remains in proximal epiphyses, girdles, and all of axial skeleton of adults
81
where is red marrow found in children and infants
most bones have red marrow
82
what are the 2 tissues in red marrow
reticular connective tissue and blood sinusoids
83
what does reticular connective tissue do in red marrow
have reticular fibers that support developing blood cells
84
what are blood sinusoids in red marrow
large capillaries with wide open intercellular junctions
85
what is yellow marrow
dormant marrow that is mainly composed of fat cells
86
where is yellow marrow located
in most of the long bones of adults (appendicular skeleton)
87
what are hemopoietic stem cells
most undifferentiated blood stem cells that continually divide
88
what 2 progeny stem cells do hemopoietic stem cells give rise to
lymphoid stem cells and myeloid stem cells
89
what do lymphoid stem cells give rise to
lymphocytes
90
what do myeloid stem cells give rise to
all other blood cells besides lymphocytes (including proerythroblasts, myeloblasts, monoblasts, and megakaryoblasts)
91
what are erythrocytes formed from
proerythroblasts
92
what are megakaryocytes formed from (break off to form platelets)
megakaryoblasts
93
what are granulocytes formed from
myeloblasts (one cell line for each type)
94
what are monocytes formed from
monoblasts (myeloid line)
95
what are lymphocytes (B cells and T cells) formed from
lymphoid stem cells
96
what are the 3 main blood vessels
arteries, capillaries, and veins
97
what are arteries
carry blood AWAY from the heart
98
what are capillaries
smallest blood vessel, the site of exchange of molecules between blood and tissue fluid
99
what are veins
carry blood TO the heart
100
what are the 3 layers of blood vessels
tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica externa (adventitia)
101
what is tunica intima composed of
simple squamous epithelium (endothelial cells)
102
what is the outer layer of tunica intima
the subendothelial layer
103
what is the subendothelial layer composed of
thin layer of loose connective tissue
104
what is tunica media made of
primarily sheets of smooth muscle; also, collagen and elastin, especially in larger vessels
105
what is tunica externa composed of
dense irregular connective tissue
106
what is lumen
central blood-filled space of a vessel
107
what is the order of the many layers of a vessel (what is on the inside toward the outside)
starting from inner most layer: lumen -> tunica intima -> subendothelial layer -> tunica media -> tunica externa
108
how do you tell veins from arteries since they usually run together (3)
veins have thinner walls while arteries have thicker tunica media
veins have larger lumen/vessel size ration, arteries have smaller lumen/vessel size ration
veins have thicker tunica externa while arteries have more smooth muscle/elastin
109
what are the 3 main types of arteries
elastic arteries, muscular arteries, and arterioles
110
what is the size of elastic arteries
the largest artery, about 2.5 to 1 cm in diameter
111
what is a major structure that is an elastic artery
aorta and its major branches
112
what are elastic arteries also called
conducting arteries
113
what is the main function of elastic arteries
have high elastin content in tunica media which stores energy for continuous flow of blood
114
what is the size of muscular arteries
about 1cm to 0.3 mm
115
what arteries are muscular arteries
most arteries
116
what are the 2 unique characteristics of muscular arteries
1. thick tunica media (smooth muscle)
2. has internal and external elastic laminae
117
what is the size of arterioles
the smallest artery, 0.3mm to 10 microm in diameter
118
where is the smooth muscle in arterioles
the tunica media is smooth muscle
119
do all arterioles have all 3 tunics
no, only the larger arterioles have all 3
120
what are the 2 types of contraction that occur to the diameter of the lumen in arterioles
contraction of smooth muscles causes either vasoconstriction or vasodilation
121
what is vasoconstriction
the diameter of the lumen becomes smaller
122
what is vasodilation
the diameter of the lumen becomes larger
123
what are the 2 things that control the diameter of arterioles
1. local factors in the tissue
2. sympathetic nervous system
124
how large are capillaries
smallest blood vessel, about 8-10 microm in diameter
125
how are red blood cells formed when going through capillaries
single file
126
do capillaries have to same function throughout the body
no, it is site specific
127
what is the function of capillaries in the lungs
oxygen enters blood, carbon dioxide leaves
128
what is the function of capillaries in the small intestine
receive digested nutrients
129
what is the function of capillaries in endocrine glands
pick up hormones
130
what is the function of capillaries in the kidneys
removal of nitrogenous wastes
131
what type of cells form capillaries
a single layer of endothelial cells (simple squamous)
132
what holds together the cells of capillaries
tight junctions and desmosomes
133
what tunica layers are present in capillaries
only tunica intima (outer tunics are absent)
134
what are intercellular clefts in capillaries
gaps of un-joined membrane between tight junctions; overlap
135
what is the function of intercellular clefts in capillaries
so small molecules can enter and exit
136
what are the supporting cells for capillaries
pericytes
137
what are the 2 main types of capillaries
continuous and fenestrated
138
what is the most common type of capillary
continuous
139
what are fenestrated capillaries
they have openings in endothelial cell membrane (fenestrae)
140
where are fenestrated capillaries found
kidneys, intestines, and pancreas
141
what are the 4 routes into and out of capillaries
1. direct diffusions (lipid soluble molecules)
2. through intercellular clefts
3. through fenestrations
4. through cytoplasmic vesicles (pinocytosis)
142
what are sinusoids
wide, leaky capillaries found in some organs
143
what type of capillary are sinusoids usually
fenestrated
144
how are the intercellular clefts in sinusoids oriented
wide open
145
what is the function of sinusoids
to exchange large substances (proteins and whole cells)
146
where are sinusoids found
in bone marrow, spleen, and liver
147
what is a capillary bed
a network of capillaries running though tissues
148
what are metarteriole and thoroughfare channels
small arteries that connect to capillary beds and control blood flow into them (or bypass them)
149
what are precapillary sphincters
bands of smooth muscle on the metarteriole that regulates the flow of blood into tissues (they can open or close)
150
what happens when precapillary sphincters are closed
blood does not pass through capillaries, it gets bypassed from inactive tissues
151
which tissues have reduced blood flow through capillary beds
metabolically inactive tissues
152
what 3 tissues lack or have sparse capillary beds
1. epithelia and cartilage
2. cornea and lens of eye
3. tendons and ligaments
153
why do epithelia and cartilage tissues lack or have sparse capillary beds
they are avascular
154
why do cornea and lens of eye tissues lack or have sparse capillary beds
because it gets nutrients from aqueous humor
155
why do tendon and ligament tissues lack or have sparse capillary beds
poorly vascularized and receive nutrients from nearby connective tissues
156
what is the main function of veins
conduct blood from capillaries toward the heart
157
is the blood pressure in veins low or high compared to arteries
low in veins, high in arteries
158
what are venules
smallest veins (8-10 microm)
159
what are postcapillary venules
smallest venules
160
when venules joing, what do they form
veins
161
what is the thickest tunic in veins
tunica externa
162
what is the tunica media made of in veins
a little smooth muscle and mostly collagen
163
what are the 2 main mechanisms to counteract low venous pressure
one-way valves in some veins and skeletal muscle pump
164
where are one-way valves in veins located in the body
mainly in the limbs
165
how does a skeletal muscle pump work
the muscle presses against the thin-walled vein, squeezing it closed
166
what are vascular anastomoses
formed when vessels interconnect
167
do organs receive blood from 1 arterial source or many
many (which then forms arterial anastomoses)
168
what are collateral channels
network of backup blood vessels that help maintain blood flow
169
what provides collateral channels
arterial anastomoses
170
are vein anastomoses or arterial anastomoses more common
vein anastomoses
171
what do large vessels have on their tunica axterna
tiny arteries, capillaries, and veins
172
what is vasa vasorum
vessels of vessels
173
what is the function of vasa vasorum
nourish the outer region of large vessels
174
where does the inner region of large vessels get nutrients
from luminal blood
175
what are the great vessels of circulation (4)
1. aorta and its major branches
2. pulmonary trunk/pulmonary arteries and veins
3. inferior vena cava
4. superior vena cava
176
what is the function of the inferior vena cava
return blood to heart from lower body
177
what is the function of the superior vena cava
carry blood returning to heart from head/upper body
178
what is the heart
a muscular double pump
179
what are the 2 circuits of the heart
pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit
180
what is the function of the pulmonary circuit
takes blood to and from the lungs
181
what is the function of the systemic circuit
vessels transport blood to and from body tissues
182
what are the 4 chambers of the heart
2 (left and right) atria on top and 2 (left and right) ventricles on bottom
183
what is the function of atria
receiving chambers, blood from the pulmonary and system circuits
184
what is the function of ventricles
the pumping chambers of the heart
185
what are the 4 earliest heart chambers
1. sinus venosus
2. atrium
3. ventricle
4. bulbus cordis
186
what does the sinus venosus in early development become part of
the right atrium
187
what does the sinus venosus do in early development
determines heart rate
188
what does the atrium in early development become
the adult left atrium
189
what does the ventricle in early development become
the adult left ventricle
190
what does the bulbus cordis in early development become
great arteries and right ventricle mainly; also base of aorta and pulmonary trunk/arteries
191
in embryonic heart development, how does the heart bend and what moves around
heart bends into an S shape, moving the atria to the top
192
in embryonic development, what divides the atria and ventricles
septa
193
where is the heart located in the thorax
between the lungs
194
how is the apex oriented
directed out (toward sternum) about 45 degrees and to left about 45 degrees
195
what is the pericardium
the covering on the heart
196
what are the 3 layers of the pericardium
fibrous pericardium, parietal layer of serous pericardium, and Visceral layer of serous pericardium
197
what is the fibrous pericardium made of
the strong layer of dense connective tissue
198
what is between the 2 layers of the serous pericardium
pericardial cavity
199
what are the 3 layers of the heart wall
epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium
200
what is the epicardium
the visceral layer of the serous pericardium (serosal membrane)
201
what kind of membrane is the epicardium and what type of tissue is it
simple squamous epithelium; thin connective tissue
202
what is the myocardium
cardiac muscle
203
how is the muscle arranged in the myocardium
in circular and spiral patterns
204
where is the endocardium
it lines the internal walls of the heart
205
what kind of membrane is endocardium and what type of tissue is it
simple squamous epithelium on a layer of loose connective tissue
206
what is the thickness of walls in the atria vs ventricles
thin walls in atria and thick walls in ventricles
207
is the left or right ventricle thicker and by how much
left ventricle 3X thicker than right
208
why is the left ventricle thicker than the right
exerts more pumping force
209
how does the thickness of the left ventricle affect the shape of the right ventricle
it flattens the right ventricle into a crescent shape
210
what divides the right and left atria
inter-atrial septum
211
what divides the right and left ventricles
inter-ventricular septum
212
where does oxygen poor blood start
in the superior and inferior venae cavae (SIV & IVC)
213
where does the SIV and IVC carry the blood
through the pulmonary circuit
214
what consists in the pulmonary circuit
Right atrium, right ventricle, pulmonary trunk, right/left pulmonary arteries, lungs
215
after going to the lungs, where is oxygen rich blood
in the pulmonary veins
216
where do the pulmonary veins bring the blood
back to the heart in the systemic circuit
217
what consists in the systemic circuit
Left atrium, left ventricle, aorta, distributing (muscular) arteries to body
218
what are the 2 one-way valves in the heart
atrioventricular valves (AV) and aortic & pulmonary valves
219
what is the atrioventricular valve
the valve between the atria and ventricle
220
what is in the right AV valve
tricuspid
221
what is in the left AV
mitral (bicuspid)
222
what is the aortic and pulmonary valve
the valve at junction of ventricles and great arteries
223
what is inside aortic and pulmonary valves
semilunar components (3 crescent shaped leaflets)
224
what are both heart valves composed of
endocardium with connective tissue core
225
what is chordae tenineae
connective tissue strands that connect AV valves to small muscles extending from lower ventricle walls
226
what are papillary muscles
what chordae tendineae connects AV valves to during contraction of ventricles
227
where are papillary muscles
lower ventricle and extend into ventricular cavity
228
what does contraction of papillary muscles prevent
prevents eversion of AV valves into atria
229
describe the function of the AV valve
1. blood returning to heart fills atria; puts pressure on AV valve causing it to open
2. ventricles fill and contract; blood is forced against AV valve cusps
3. AV valve closes; papillary muscle contract and chordae tendineae tighten preventing valve from everting into atria
4. pressure rises in ventricle; blood is pushed against semilunar valves forcing them open
230
what forces semilunar valves to close
blood pressure in aorta/pulmonary trunk
231
what is turbulence
the "lub-dup" sound when valves close
232
what causes the first "lub" sound of heart contraction
the AV valve closes
233
what causes the second "dup" sound of heart contraction
the semilunar valves closing
234
is the valve sound best heard directly over valve or in a corner of the heart
corner of heart
235
where is the pulmonary valve best heard
superior left corner
236
where is the aortic valve best heard
superior right corner
237
where is the mitral valve best heard
at left inferior corner
238
where is the tricuspid valve best heard
inferior right corner
239
where is the superior right corner of the heart
at the 3rd rib at costal cartilage/sternum
240
where is the inferior right corner of the heart
at the 6th rib about 1.5 inch lateral to the sternum
241
where is the superior left corner of the heart
at the 2nd rib at costal cartilage about 1.5 inch lateral to the sternum
242
where is the inferior left corner of the heart
lies in the 5th inter-costal space (between 5th and 6th rib) at the mid-clavicular line
243
what do auto-rhythmic cardiac cells
generate action potentials, signal other muscle cells to contract rhythmically
244
what are the 2 types of auto-rhythmic cardiac cells
pacemaker cells and conducting cells
245
what are the 2 locations of pacemaker cells
in nodes:
1. sinoatrial (SA) node
2. atrioventricular (AV) node
246
where is the sinoatrial (SA) node
upper right atrium
247
what do the pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial node do
sets inherent rate of contraction (primary pacemaker)
248
where is the atrioventricular node
between atria and ventricles
249
what are the 5 main parts in the conducting system
interatrial pathway, internodal pathway, atrioventricular bundle, bundle branches, and purkinje fibers
250
where is the interatrial pathway
between atria (left and right)
251
where is the internodal pathway
between SA and AV nodes
252
where is the atrioventricular bundle
(bundle of His) between upper ventricles
253
where is the bundle branches
into each ventricle (left and right)
254
where are the purkinje fibers
through each ventricle wall (between endocardium and myocardium)
255
what are the 3 nerves that go to and from the heart that alter heart rate
1. visceral sensory fibers
2. parasympathetic branches of vagus nerve (SA and AV node)
3. sympathetic fibers from cervical chain ganglia
256
what is the function of coronary arteries
supply heart with blood
257
what do the coronary arteries arise from
the aorta
258
what are the 3 main branches of the coronary arteries
left and right coronary arteries, arterial anastomoses
259
what is the main function of the coronary sinus
delivers almost all venous blood from heart to right atrium
260
when are all major vessels in place in fetal development
by month 3
261
what are the 3 main differences between fetal and postnatal circulation
1. fetus must supply blood to placenta
2. most blood bypasses liver
3. very little blood is sent through the pulmonary circuit (fetus does not breath; lungs not in use)
262
what are the 2 umbilical vessels running in the umbilical cord
paired umbilical arteries and unpaired umbilical vein
263
what does the paired umbilical artery do
move oxygen poor blood to the placenta
264
what does the paired umbilical artery branch from
internal iliac arteries of fetus
265
what does the unpaired umbilical vein do
move oxygen rich blood from placenta to fetus (high in nutrients); some goes to liver but most goes through ductus venosus
266
what is the ductus venosus
a vessel that moves to and from placenta, most blood bypasses fetal liver and enters inferior vena cava
267
what 2 things in fetuses shunt away from pulmonary circuit (vessel that goes to and from lungs)
foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus
268
how does blood move into the foramen ovale instead of the pulmonary circuit
when R atrium contracts, about half blood goes thru foramen ovale into L atrium instead of R ventricle; enters aorta
269
how does blood move into the ductus arteriosus instead of the pulmonary circuit
goes into aorta directly from pulmonary trunk instead of moving to pulmonary circuit
270
what is remnant of the umbilical vein
ligamentum teres (anterior liver surface)
271
what is remnant of the ductus venosus
ligamentum venosum (liver's inferior surface)
272
what is remnant of the umbilical arteries
medial umbilical ligaments (internal to naval)
273
what are the 2 main structures in the lymphatic system
lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes
274
what is the purpose of the lymphatic system
collect excess tissue fluid and blood proteins lost from blood capillaries then return tissue fluid and blood proteins back to bloodstream
275
what is edema
excess tissue fluid
276
what is elephantiasis
a parasitic worm that lives in lymph vessels
277
what does elephantiasis do
blocks lymph vessels, prevents return of excess tissue fluid and blood, accumulates in tissue (edema)
278
where does the lymphatic system pick up lymph and where does it carry the fluid
collect lymph from loose connective tissue and carry fluid to veins in the neck (one way flow; only toward heart)
279
what is the order of lymphatic vessels (4)
1. lymph capillaries
2. lymphatic collecting vessels
3. lymph trunks
4. lymph ducts
280
what do lymph capillaries do
smallest, first receive lymph
281
where are lymph capillaries located
blood capillaries
282
what tunic is present in lymph capillaries
Simple squamous endothelium, other tunics absent
283
what are mini-valve flaps on lymph capillaries
they open and close to allow fluid to enter, formed by endothelial cells overlapping
284
what does the high permeability of lymph capillaries allow
uptake of large amounts of tissue fluid and entrance of bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells
285
what are lacteals
specialized lymphatic capillaries
286
where are lacteals located
in lining of small intestine
287
what do lacteals do
receive digested fats absorbed from small intestine (fats not directly absorbed into blood, first go to lymph)
288
what do lymphatic collecting vessels do
collect from lymph capillaries
289
where are lymphatic collecting vessels
near muscular arteries and veins
290
what do lymphatic collecting vessels contain a lot of
internal valves (more than veins) to help direct flow one way
291
what are the 4 things that propel lymph
bulging of skeletal muscles around them, pulsing of nearby arteries, tunica media of larger lymph vessels, random movements
292
what are scattered along collecting vessels
lymph nodes
293
what type of tissue are lymph nodes
dense connective tissue capsule
294
what are lymph nodes responsible for
cleanse lymph of pathogens
295
what are the pathogens destroyed by in lymph nodes
destroyed by T lymphocytes, antibodies, and macrophages
296
what are the vessels called that enter nodes and exit nodes
afferent vessels (enter nodes) and efferent vessels (exit nodes)
297
what does lymph filter through
lymph sinuses
298
where are lymph sinuses located
throughout and between lymphoid nodules (follicles) of B cells; T cells scattered
299
how are lymph nodes organized
in clusters
300
for each of the following locations, what is the name of the lymph node:
1. at base of limbs (2)
2. along descending aorta
3. along major lymph vessels in neck
4. in mediastinum
5. along iliac artery in pelvis
1. axillary nodes (armpit) and inguinal nodes (upper thigh)
2. aortic nodes
3. cervical nodes
4. tracheobronchial nodes
5. iliac nodes
301
what are lymph trunks
collect lymph from collecting vessels
302
what are the 5 major lymph trunks
1. lumbar trunks
2. intestinal trunk
3. bronchomediastinal trunks
4. subclavian trunks
5. jugular trunks
303
what are lumbar trunks responsible for
receives lymph from lower limbs
304
what is the intestinal trunk responsible for
receives chyle from digestive organs, abdominopelvic cavity
305
what are cisterna chyli and where are they located
bulbous swelling located at the union of lumbar and intestinal trunks
306
what are the bronchomediastinal trunks responsible for
collects lymph from thoracic viscera (lungs, heart, etc.)
307
what are the subclavian trunks responsible for
receive lymph from arms and thoracic wall (front and back)
308
what are the jugular trunks responsible for
drain lymph from the head and neck
309
what are lymph ducts
empty lymph into veins of neck
310
what are the 2 lymph ducts
thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct
311
where is the thoracic duct
ascends along vertebral bodies
312
what parts of the body does the thoracic duct drain
drains 3/4 of body (lower limbs, left upper limb, and left side of head neck and trunk)
313
where does the thoracic duct empty into
venous circulation (junction of left internal jugular and left subclavian veins)
314
what parts of the body does the thoracic duct drain
right side of head and upper right thorax
315
where does the right lymphatic duct empty into
into junction of right internal jugular and subclavian veins
316
what are the 2 groups that organs are divided into
alimentary canal and accessory digestive organs
317
what organs are included in the alimentary canal
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine
318
what organs are included in the accessory digestive organs
teeth, tongue, gallbladder, salivary glands, liver, pancreas
319
what are the 4 layers of the alimentary canal wall from the esophagus to anus
mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa
320
what is the mucosa (most inner or outer)
most inner layer
321
what are the 3 sub layers of the mucosa
epithelium, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae
322
where is the epithelium of the mucosa
interface with lumen
323
what type of tissue is the lamina propria made of
loose connective tissue
324
what type of tissue is the muscularis mucosae
thin layer of smooth muscle
325
what is the muscularis mucosae responsible for
produces localized movements of mucosa
326
where is the muscularis mucosae absent (2)
mouth and pharynx
327
where is the submucosa
external to mucosa
328
what type of tissue is the submucosa made of
connective tissue; intermediate type (similar to loose and dense irregular)
329
what is within the submucosa
contains blood and lymphatic vessels; nerve fibers
330
where is the muscularis externa
external to submucosa
331
what type of tissue is the muscularis externa made of
smooth muscle
332
what are the 2 layers of the muscularis externa and which is inner/outer
circular muscularis (inner) and longitudinal muscularis (outer)
333
what is the muscularis externa responsible for
move and mix ingested food
334
where is the serosa
outer most layer
335
what membrane is the serosa
visceral peritoneum
336
what type of membrane and tissue is the visceral peritoneum
Mesothelium- simple squamous epithelium + thin connective tissue layer
337
what is adventitia and what organs have it
ordinary fibrous connective tissues, organs outside of peritoneal cavity
338
what are the 2 glands in the digestive system
intrinsic glands and extrinsic glands
339
where are the intrinsic glands
within wall of alimentary canal
340
what are the 2 types of intrinsic glands
mucosal and submucosal glands
341
what are the 2 types of intrinsic glands continuous with
with epithelial lining
342
what do the intrinsic glands make
mucus, gastric acid, proteolytic enzymes, and bicarbonate
343
where are extrinsic glands
outside of alimentary canal and connected via long ducts
344
what is the main type of extrinsic gland
salivary glands
345
what do the salivary glands in the pancreas make
secretes most digestive enzymes
346
what do the salivary glands in the liver make
bile salts, aid in digestion of fat
347
where is the enteric nervous system
within the wall of alimentary canal
348
what are the 2 types of plexuses in the enteric nervous system
myenteric and submucosal plexuses
349
what does the enteric nervous system mainly receive input from
the autonomic nerves, but the enteric nervous system can function independently
350
what are the 3 reflex arcs in the enteric nervous system that control digestive processes
1. short sensory neurons
2. short visceral motor neurons
3. interneuron-like neurons (not true interneurons)
351
what is the myenteric nerve plexus also called
auerbach's plexus
352
where is the myenteric nerves plexus
In muscularis externa, between circular and longitudinal layers
353
what is the function of the myenteric nerve plexus
Receive input from both parasympathetic and sympathetic; control contractions of muscularis externa
354
what is the submucosal nerve plexus also called
meissner's plexus
355
where is the submucosal nerve plexus located
within submucosa
356
what is the function of the submucosal nerve plexus
receive input from both parasympathetic and sympathetic; control localized movement of muscularis mucosae and gland secretion
357
what is the peritoneum
a serous membrane
358
where is the visceral peritoneum
surrounds digestive organs
359
where is the parietal peritoneum
lines the interior abdominopelvic wall
360
what is the peritoneal cavity
a slit-like potential space
361
what is a mesentery
a double layer of peritoneum
362
what is the purpose of a mesentery
holds organs in place, attaches to dorsal and ventral abdominal wall, and provides a route for circulatory vessels and nerves
363
what are the 2 main types of mesenteries
dorsal mesenteries and ventral mesenteries
364
what are dorsal mesenteries connected to
the posterior wall
365
are most mesenteries dorsal or ventral
dorsal
366
what is an example of a dorsal mesentery
greater omentum (largest dorsal mes.): Extends from greater curvature of stomach to posterior abdominal wall; extends forward and drapes over transverse colon and some of small intestine
367
what do the ventral mesenteries connect to
the anterior wall
368
what is an example of a ventral mesentery
lesser omentum: extends from liver to lesser curvature of stomach; indirectly connected to anterior abdominal wall
369
what are secondarily retroperitoneal organs
some organs of the alimentary canal that lose their mesenteries during embryonic development
370
where are secondarily retroperitoneal organs
lie outside of peritoneum
371
what happens to the mesenteries in secondarily retroperitoneal organs
they are reabsorbed
372
what organs are secondarily retroperitoneal
part of duodenum, ascending colon, descending colon, rectum, and pancreas
373
where is the peritoneal cavity in retroperitoneal organs
behind the peritoneum
374
where is the peritoneal cavity in peritoneal organs
digestive organs that keep their mesentery
375
what are the 2 examples of ventral mesenteries
falciform ligament (anterior liver to anterior abdominal wall) and lesser omentum (stomach to liver)
376
what are the 4 examples of dorsal mesenteries
greater omentum, transverse mesocolon, mesentery of intestine, and sigmoid mesocolon
377
what are the 2 parts of the mouth
vestibule and oral cavity
378
where is the vestibule
between the cheek and teeth
379
where is the oral cavity
internal to teeth and anterior 2/3 of tongue
380
what is the palate
roof of the mouth
381
what are the 2 parts of the palate
hard palate and soft palate
382
what is the hard palate
made of bone, anterior 2/3, separates oral and nasal cavities
383
what are the 2 components of the hard palate
palatine process of maxilla and palatine bone
384
what is the soft palate
posterior 1/3, muscular flap, closes off passage-way between nasal cavity and oropharynx during swallow
385
what are the 3 cellular layers in the mouth
mucosa, submucosa, and external muscularis
386
what is the cell wall type in the mucosa layer
stratified squamous epithelium
387
what does the mucosa layer help transition in the mouth
from keratinized to non-keratinized at lips
388
what is absent in the mucosa layer in the mouth
muscularis mucosae
389
where is the submucosa layer present
in guns and bony palate above the bones
390
where is the external muscularis present
in cheeks and soft palate
391
what type of muscle is the external muscularis layer
skeletal muscle
392
what is the function of teeth
bite off portions of food and begin its mechanical breakdown
393
what are alveoli
sockets in the gums where teeth sits
394
what are the 3 parts of teeth
crown, neck and root
395
what are the 5 parts that the teeth are composed of
enamel, dentine, pulp cavity and pulp, cementum, and periodontal membrane (ligament)
396
what is the enamel
outer layer of crown and neck
397
when is the enamel made and how long does it last
produced before tooth erupts and lasts a lifetime
398
what is 99.5% of the enamel made of
calcium-phosphate crystals (no cells)
399
where is the dentine
underlies enamel, the bulk of tooth
400
what are dentinal tubules
microscopic canals through dentine layer
401
what are odontoblasts and where are they located
cells that secrete dentine within the inferior layer of dentinal tubules
402
what is pulp cavity and pulp
non mineralized center of tooth
403
what type of tissue is pulp
connective tissue
404
what is within the pulp
nerves and blood vessels
405
what is cementum
thin layer of bone on outside of root
406
what is the function of cementum
Provides an anchor for thin collagen fibers from periodontal membrane (ligament) on its outside
407
what type of tissue is periodontal membrane (ligament)
dense connective tissue
408
what is the function of periodontal membrane
anchors tooth in socket via collagen fibers
409
how does periodontal disease start and what does it turn into
starts as gum infection (gingivitis) that breaks down periodontal membrane and results in loss of teeth
410
what are the 4 types of teeth
incisors, canines, premolars, and molars
411
what is the shape of incisors
chisel shaped
412
what do incisors do to food
sheer bites of food
413
what is the shape of canines
cone shaped
414
what do canines do to food
piercing and tearing food
415
what is the shape of premolars
flat surface with 1 or 2 cusps
416
what do premolars do to food
grind food
417
what is the shape of molars
broad surface with 4-5 cusps; 2 roots (lower molars) or 3-4 roots (upper molars)
418
what do molars do to food
grinding of food
419
how many permanent teeth do people have
32 teeth
420
what is the dental formula for permanent teeth
2-1-2-3
421
what are wisdom teeth
the 3rd molar
422
how many deciduous teeth do people have
20 teeth
423
when do deciduous teeth first appear
6 months ish
424
what is the dental formula for deciduous teeth
2-1-0-2
425
what is the tongue
interlacing fascicles of skeletal muscle
426
what is the function of the tongue
grips food and repositions it; helps form some consonants
427
what are the 2 types of muscles in the tingue
intrinsic and extrinsic muscles
428
where are intrinsic muscles and what do they do
within the tongue and change shape of tongue
429
where are extrinsic muscles and what do they do
external to tongue and move tongue left/right and in/out
430
what are the 3 types of papillae on the tongue
filiform, fungiform, and vallate papillae
431
what papillae are most abundant
filiform
432
which papillae are the largest
vallate
433
what is the function of salivary glands
produce saliva
434
what type of gland are salivary glands
compound tubuloalveolar glands
435
what are the 2 kinds of glands that salivary glands can be
intrinsic and extrinsic
436
what is the function of intrinsic salivary glands
continually secrete; moisten oral cavity
437
what are the 2 types of intrinsic glands
mucosal and submucosal glands
438
what are the 3 types of extrinsic glands
parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands
439
what are the 5 things that extrinsic salivary glands secrete
mucus, starch digesting enzymes, bacteria killing molecules, ions, and water
440
what are the 2 types of cells that secrete things
mucous cells (secrete mucous) and serous cells (secrete the other 4 things)
441
what type of secretory cells do extrinsic parotid salivary glands have
only serous
442
what type of secretory cells do extrinsic submandibular salivary glands have
evenly mixed serous and mucous
443
what type of secretory cells do extrinsic sublingual salivary glands have
mostly mucous
444
where is the pharynx
the throat region of alimentary canal
445
what are the 3 parts of the pharynx
Nasopharynx, Oropharynx, and Laryngopharynx
446
where is the nasopharynx
posterior to nasal cavity
447
where is the oropharynx
posterior to oral cavity
448
where is the laryngopharynx
posterior to larynx
449
what is the purpose of the oro- and laryngeal pharynx
passages for air and food
450
what type of cell membranes do oro- and laryngeal pharynxs have
stratified squamous epithelium
451
what type of epithelium is in the esophagus
stratified squamous epithelium
452
when the esophagus is empty, what do the mucosa and submucosa in longitudinal folds do
expand to allow food to pass
453
what type of gland are the mucous glands in the esophagus
primarily compound tubuloalveolar glands in submucosa
454
what are the 2 types of muscle in the muscularis externa of the esophagus
skeletal muscle first (proximal) third of length; smooth muscle in distal 2/3
455
what is the most external layer called in the esophagus
adventitia
456
what are the 3 layers of the stomach
mucosa, submucosa, and muscularis externa
457
what type of membrane is in the mucosa of the stomach
simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells
458
what are 2 of the components of the mucosa layer of the stomach
gastric pits and gastric glands
459
what type of muscle is the muscularis externa made of
smooth muscle
460
what is the extra layer in the muscularis externa of the stomach made of
extra oblique layer of smooth muscle
461
what are gastric pits
cup-shaped invaginations into mucosa
462
what are gastric glands
long tubular shaped glands that extend from the base of pits
463
in the cardiac and pyloric region what type of cells do gastric glands have
mostly mucous secreting cells
464
in the fundus and body of stomach what type of cells do gastric glands have (3)
mucous neck cells, parietal cells, and chief cells
465
what do mucous neck cells secrete
mucus
466
what do parietal cells secrete
gastric acid and intrinsic factor
467
what do chief cells secrete
pepsinogen
468
what do enteroendocrine cells secrete
various hormones
469
where are enteroendocrine cells
scattered along lining of alimentary canal (among epithelial cells) and in gastric galnds
470
what is the longest portion of the alimentary canal
the small intestine
471
what is the small intestine responsible for
most enzymatic digestion and absorption of nutrients and fluids
472
what are the 3 subdivisions of the small intestine
duodenum (5%), jejunum (35%) and ileum (60%)
473
what are the 3 modifications of the small intestine to increase absorption through increasing SA
circular folds, villi, and microvilli
474
what are circular folds
transverse ridges in mucosa and submucosa layers
475
what are villi
finger like projections of the mucosa
476
what type of epithelium do villi have
simple columnar epithelium
477
what are the 2 components in the villi
blood vessels and lacteals
478
where are microvilli
apical surface of aborptive cells
479
what type of epithelium is along the small intestine
Simple columnar epithelium
480
what are the 2 main cells that are within the epithelium of the small intestine
goblet cells (secrete mucus) and enteroendocrine cells (secrete hormones)
481
what are intestinal crypts
small pockets of epithelium in the small intestine that secretes intestinal juice
482
what do basal cells do in the small intestine
divide to replace old/defective epithelial cells
483
what are the 5 parts of the large intestine
cecum, appendix, colon, rectum, and anal canal
484
what component of the small intestine is absent in the large intestine
villi
485
what type of epithelium are in the large intestine
simple columnar epithelial tissue
486
how are intestinal crypts different in the large intestine
deeper than sm intestine, straight, rectangular, much large, filled with goblet cells
487
what is the epithelium in the anal canal
stratified squamous epithelium
488
what is the hepatic portal system
A specialized part of the vascular circuit
489
what is a portal system
two different capillary beds in
series
490
what is the functions of the hepatic portal system
Picks up digested nutrients (Also picks up potentially toxic substances that have been ingested and delivers to liver) and Delivers nutrients to the liver for processing
491
what percentage of blood flow to the liver is via portal system vs hepatic artery
75% portal system and 25% hepatic artery
492
what are the 3 veins in the hepatic portal system
Splenic Vein, Superior mesenteric vein, and Inferior mesenteric vein
493
what does does the splenic vein do
Any microbes escaping the spleen travel to liver to be destroyed
494
what does the superior mesenteric vein do
Drains entire small intestine; part of colon
495
what does the inferior mesenteric vein to
Drains distal colon, including rectum
496
what forms the hepatic portal vein
Splenic and superior mesenteric veins converge
497
what is the liver an unusual gland
no typical secretory units
498
what are hepatocytes
liver cells
499
what are the basic units of liver
hepatic lobules
500
what are hepatic lobules
Hexagonal-shaped collections of hepatocytes
501
what are hepatocytes arranged in
plates/sheets
502
what is in the center of each lobule
central vein
503
what is at the sides of each lobule
portal triage
504
what are the 3 segments of the portal triage
Segment of hepatic portal venule, Segment of arteriole from hepatic artery, and Segment of bile duct
505
what are present between the sheets/plates of hepatocytes
blood sinusoids
