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Anatomy > Lecture - Exam 2 > Flashcards

Lecture - Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

how are the cells in nervous tissue organized

A

cells are densely packed and intertwined

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2
Q

what are the 2 main cell types in nervous tissue

A

neurons and support cells

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3
Q

what are neurons

A

they transmit electrical signals, they are excitable

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4
Q

what are support cells

A

non-excitable, surround and wrap neurons

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5
Q

what cell conducts an action potential

A

neurons

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6
Q

how do neurons conduct action potentials

A

when neurons conduct electrical impulses along their plasma membrane

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7
Q

describe the longevity of neurons

A

they can live and function for a lifetime

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8
Q

describe how often neurons divide

A

they do not divide - fetal neurons lose their ability to undergo mitosis except for neural stem cells in the hippocampus and olfactory bulbs

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9
Q

describe the metabolic rate in neurons

A

they have a high metabolic rate, they require abundant oxygen and glucose

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10
Q

what do neurons form to communicate

A

synapses (sites a communication between cells)

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11
Q

what is the shape of the neuron cell body

A

perikaryon or soma

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12
Q

in addition to normal organelles, what else to neurons contain

A

nissl bodies/ nissl substance

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13
Q

what are nissl bodies made of

A

densely packed, flattened sacs of rough ER and free ribosomes

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14
Q

what do nissl bodies do

A

renew membranes of the cell/make proteins (membrane processes extend from cell body)

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15
Q

what are the 2 neuron membrane processes

A

dendrites and axons

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16
Q

what do dendrites look like

A

they extensively branch from the cell body

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17
Q

what do dendrites do

A

transmit electrical signal TOWARD the cell body because they act as receptive sites

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18
Q

what many axons does each neuron have

A

one

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19
Q

what is the function of axons

A

produce and conduct action potentials by transmitting impulses AWAY from the cell body

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20
Q

what 3 components are axons made of

A

neurofilaments, actin microfilaments, and microtubules

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21
Q

what is the role of neurofilaments, actin microfilaments, and microtubules in axons

A

provide strength along the length of axon and axonal transport - aid in the transport of substances to and from the cell body

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22
Q

what is the axon hillock

A

the initial segment of the axon that initiates action potentions

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23
Q

what are terminal branches

A

multiple branches at the end of axons

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24
Q

what are axon terminals (aka end bulbs or terminal boutons)

A

knobs at the end of branches

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25
Q

what are the 3 structural classes of neurons

A

multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar

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26
Q

what is multipolar neurons

A

more than 2 processes, usually many dendrites and one axon (99% of all neurons)

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27
Q

what is bipolar neurons

A

only 2 processes that extend from opposite sides of cell body

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28
Q

what is unipolar neurons

A

only one process that emerges from cell body and divides like an inverted letter T

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29
Q

what are the 2 types of processes in unipolar neurons

A

peripheral process and central process

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30
Q

in synapses, how many directions do signals pass

A

just 1 direction

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31
Q

what are neurotransmitters

A

chemical messengers

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32
Q

what is a presynaptic neuron

A

conducts signal TOWARD a synapse

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33
Q

what is a postsynaptic neuron

A

transmit electrical activity AWAY from a synapse

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34
Q

what do postsynaptic neurons have in their membranes that presynaptic neurons do not

A

receptors for neurotransmitters

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35
Q

what are synaptic vesicles

A

membrane bound sacs containing neurotransmitters

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36
Q

where are synaptic vesicles found

A

present in axon termins on presynaptic side

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37
Q

what is the synaptic cleft

A

it separates the plasma membrane of the 2 neurons

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38
Q

how does a neurotransmitter get from one neuron cell to the next

A

it is released into the synaptic cleft, diffuses to second neuron, then binds to receptors on membrane of second neuron

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39
Q

what are neuroglia cells

A

supporting cells in the CNS

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40
Q

what is the structure of neuroglia cells

A

have branched processes and a central cell body

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41
Q

what is the population of neuroglia cells compared to neurons and other cells in the brain

A

outnumber neurons 10 to 1 and make up half the mass of the brain

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42
Q

how many types of supporting cells are in the CNS vs PNS

A

CNS - 4 types of neuroglia cells
PNS - 2 types of supporting cells

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43
Q

What are the 4 types of supporting cells in the CNS

A

astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, and oligodendrocytes

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44
Q

what is the most abundant glial cell type

A

astrocytes

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45
Q

what are the main functions of astrocytes (6)

A
  1. take up/release ions to control environment around neurons
  2. recapture and recycle neurotransmitters
  3. involved with synapse formation in developing neural tissue
  4. produce molecules necessary for neural growth
  5. involved in memory (degradation leads to alzheimers)
  6. maintain blood-brain barrier
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46
Q

what is the least abundant supporting cell in the CNS

A

microglia

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47
Q

what is the main function of microglia

A

defense - engulf invading microorganisms and dead neurons (act as macrophages of the CNS)

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48
Q

what are microglia derived from

A

blood cells called monocytes

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49
Q

what is the main function of ependymal cells

A

help produce CSF

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50
Q

where are ependymal cells mainly found and why

A

line the brain ventricles and central cavity of the spinal cord to help circulate the CSF

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51
Q

what special feature is apart of ependymal cells

A

cilia which helps circulate CSF

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52
Q

what is the main function of oligodendrocytes

A

they wrap their cell processes (few) around axons and produce myelin sheaths

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53
Q

what are the 2 supporting cells in the PNS

A

satellite cells and schwann cells

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54
Q

where are satellite cells found

A

surround sensory neuron cell bodies within ganglia of PNS

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55
Q

where are schwann cells found

A

surround axons in the PNS

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56
Q

what do schwann cells form around axons in the PNS

A

myelin sheaths

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57
Q

what are myelin sheaths

A

segmented structures composed of the lipoprotein myelin

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58
Q

what are the functions of myelin sheaths (2)

A

form and insulating layer to prevent leakage of electrical current AND increases the speed of impulse conduction (50X)

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59
Q

what is multiple sclerosis (MS) and what are the symptoms

A

an autoimmune disease that results from degeneration of myelin leading to weakness, difficulty walking, and vision disturbances

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60
Q

when are myelin sheaths in the PNS formed

A

develop during fetal period and in the first year of postnatal life

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61
Q

what is the nodes of ranvier

A

gaps between myelin segments along axon

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62
Q

how do schwann cells form around the axon

A

they wrap in concentric layers around the axon to cover is in a tightly packed coil of membranes

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63
Q

how many myelin sheaths can form in one schwann cell

A

one; one schwann cell=one myelin sheath

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64
Q

which axons are myelinated and which are not

A

thick axons are myelinated and thin axons are unmyelinated

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65
Q

how are unmyelinated axons different than myelinated axons

A

conduct electrical signals more slowly

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66
Q

where are the unmyelinated cells

A

certain visceral sensory neurons that conduct temperature and pain

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67
Q

do schwann cells still support unmyelinated cells

A

yes, they just don’t for sheaths

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68
Q

what support cells form myelin sheaths in the CNS

A

oligodendrocytes

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69
Q

how many axons does one oligodendrocyte coil around

A

several

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70
Q

what is gray matter in nerve tissue in CNS

A

cell bodies (neurons, glial cells), dendrites, and axon terminals

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71
Q

what is white matter in nerve tissue in CNS

A

myelinated axons

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72
Q

where is gray matter found and in what formation (4)

A

nuclei- clusters of neuron cell bodies in CNS
ganglia- clusters of neuron cell bodies in PNS
columns- rows of neuron cell bodies
cortex- continuous sheet (only cerebrum and cerebellum)

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73
Q

where is white matter

A

tracts (only in CNS)

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74
Q

what are the 2 divisions of the nervous system

A

central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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75
Q

what are the 2 parts of the CNS

A

brain and spinal cord (integration and command center)

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76
Q

what does rostral mean

A

only for CNS, toward the nose

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77
Q

what does caudal mean

A

only for CNS, toward the tail

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78
Q

where is the PNS

A

everything outside of the CNS, nerves extending from the brain and spinal cord

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79
Q

what are the 2 types of nerves in the PNS

A

cranial nerves and spinal nerves

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80
Q

what are the three main classes of neurons

A

afferent neurons, efferent neurons, and interneurons

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81
Q

what are afferent neurons

A

sensory neurons that sends info toward the CNS

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82
Q

where are afferent neurons

A

cell bodies outside the CNS in sensory ganglia, central processes grow into CNS

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83
Q

what are efferent neurons

A

motor neurons that send into away from CNS

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84
Q

where are efferent neurons

A

cell bodies in CNS, axons leave CNS and enter PNS

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85
Q

what and where are interneurons

A

located totally within CNS, in synapse with sensory neurons

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86
Q

where is the somatic body region

A

outside of the ventral body cavity

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87
Q

where is the visceral body region

A

inside of the ventral body cavity and glands (glans are outside of ventral cavity)

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88
Q

what 4 subdivisions do the body regions result in

A

somatic sensory, visceral sensory, somatic motor, and visceral motor

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89
Q

what is the modality of somatic sensory

A

something sensed

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90
Q

where are general somatic senses

A

receptors are widely spread over body wall

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91
Q

what are the general somatic senses

A

touch, pain, vibration, pressure, and temperature

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92
Q

what are proprioceptive senses

A

detect stretch in tendons and muscle

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93
Q

what is body sense

A

position and movement of body in space

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94
Q

where are special somatic senses

A

receptors are restricted to head

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95
Q

what are special somatic senses

A

hearing, vision, smell, and equilibrium (balace)

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96
Q

how many modalities does visceral sensory have

A

7

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97
Q

what are general visceral senses

A

stretch, pain, temperature, chemical changes, nausea, and hunger

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98
Q

where are general visceral senses mainly felt

A

digestive, urinary tract, and reproductive organs

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99
Q

what are special visceral senses

A

taste

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100
Q

what does the general somatic motor system do

A

signal contraction of skeletal muscles

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101
Q

is the somatic motor system controlled voluntarily or does it just happen

A

under voluntary control

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102
Q

what is the visceral motor system

A

regulates the contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle, secretion by glands, and adipose (fat)

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103
Q

what system does the visceral motor system make up

A

the autonomic nervous system

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104
Q

what are the nicknames for the somatic motor system and visceral motor system

A

voluntary nervous system and involuntary nervous system

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105
Q

what are nerves

A

cordlike organs in the peripheral nervous system

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106
Q

what are nerves made of

A

numerous axons wrapped in connective tissue

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107
Q

what are nerve fascicles

A

groups of axons bound into bundles

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108
Q

what are the 3 types of nerve fascicles

A

endoneurium, perineurium, and epineurium

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109
Q

what is the endoneurium

A

a layer of delicate loose connective tissue surrounding each axon

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110
Q

what is the perineurium

A

dense irregular connective tissue wrapping surrounding a nerve fascicle

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111
Q

what is the epineurium

A

the whole nerve is surrounded by tough fibrous sheath, dense irregular connective tissue

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112
Q

when does the nervous system develop in embryonic development

A

by week 4

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113
Q

what is developed in the nervous system in embryonic development

A

embryonic neural tube and neural crest cells

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114
Q

what cells are the neural tube wall made of

A

neuroepithelial cells

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115
Q

what do the neuroepithelial cells become

A

they divide and become neuroblasts

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116
Q

what are neuroblasts

A

immature neurons

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117
Q

where is white and gray matter organized

A

gray matter is centrally located and white matter is externally located

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118
Q

what is the extra layer of amtter in some brain regions

A

theres an addition layer of gray matter external to white matter in SOME brain regions

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119
Q

why is there an extra layer of gray matter sometimes

A

due to groups of neurons migrating externally

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120
Q

what are cortexes

A

outer layer of gray matter

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121
Q

where are cortexes located

A

in cerebrum and cerebellum

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122
Q

what do neuroblasts cluster into in embryonic development

A

they cluster into dorsal (alar) plates and ventral (basal plates)

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123
Q

what do alar plate cells become

A

interneurons of CNS (somatic sensory and visceral sensory interneuron cell bodies)

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124
Q

what do basal plate cells become

A

motor neurons (visceral motor and somatic motor neuron cell bodies)

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125
Q

what do sensory neurons come from

A

form from neural crest cells of embryo

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126
Q

what does the brain arise from in ED

A

the rostral (anterior) part of the neural tube

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127
Q

what does the hollow part of the neural tube become in ED

A

the central cavity of brain (ventricles) and central cavity of spinal cord

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128
Q

what are the 3 primary brain vesicles in 4 week embryo

A

prosencephalon (the forebrain)
mesencephalon (the midbrain)
rhombencephalon (the hindbrain)

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129
Q

what secondary vesicles does the prosencephalon form

A

telencephalon and diencephalon

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130
Q

what secondary vesicles does the mesencephalon form

A

none (remains undivided)

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131
Q

what secondary vesicles does the rhombencephalon form

A

metencephalon and myelencephalon

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132
Q

what structure of the adult brain is derived from the telencephalon

A

the cerebral hemispheres

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133
Q

what structure of the adult brain is derived from the diencephalon

A

thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus (includes pineal gland)

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134
Q

what structure of the adult brain is derived from the mesencephalon

A

midbrain

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135
Q

what structure of the adult brain is derived from the metencephalon

A

pons and cerebellum

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136
Q

what structure of the adult brain is derived from the myelencephalon

A

medulla oblongata

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137
Q

in ED what do the cerebral hemispheres envelop

A

the diencephalon and midbrain

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138
Q

what makes up the brain stem

A

the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

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139
Q

what happens to the shape of the cerebral hemispheres in ED

A

wrinkling due to more neurons fitting within limited spaces

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140
Q

what are meninges

A

fibrous membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord

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141
Q

what are the general functions of meninges

A

cover and protect the CNS, enclose and protect vessels that supply the CNS, contain cerebrospinal fluid

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142
Q

what are the 3 layers in the meninges

A

dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater

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143
Q

which is the strongest layer

A

the dura mater

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144
Q

what type of tissue is the dura mater made of

A

dense irregular connective tissue

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145
Q

what 2 layers are the dura mater made of

A

periosteal layer (against skull) and meningeal layer

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146
Q

what parts of the 2 layers of the dura mater are not fused

A

fused except to enclose the dural sinuses (blood filled spaces)

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147
Q

what is the largest dural sinus

A

the superior sagittal sinus

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148
Q

what are falxes

A

dura mater that subdivides the cranial cavity

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149
Q

what is the only layer of dura mater that covers the spinal cord

A

only the meningeal layer (no periosteal layer)

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150
Q

what is the epidural space

A

near the spine, there is a space between the bones and the dural layer. this is called the epidural space

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151
Q

what is the epidural space filled with

A

adipose and blood vessels

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152
Q

what membrane is beneath the dura mater

A

the arachnoid mater

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153
Q

what is the subdural space

A

the potential space between the dura and arachnoid mater (not in healthy brain)

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154
Q

what is the subarachnoid space filled with

A

filled with CSF, contains blood vessels that supply the brain

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155
Q

what is the subarachnoid space

A

the true space between the arachnoid and pia mater

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156
Q

what is arachnoid villi

A

areas where arachnoid mater grow through the dura mater where blood sinuses are

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157
Q

what does the arachnoid villi do

A

allow CSF to pass into the dural blood sinuses, acts as a faucet to allow CSF to move out of sinuses

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158
Q

what is the pia mater made of

A

delicate loose connective tissue

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159
Q

where is the pia mater found

A

it clings tightly to the surface of the brain (follows all convolutions of the cortex over gyri and into sulci)

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160
Q

what are the ventricles of the brain

A

expansion of brains central cavity that is filled with CSF (extracellular fluid of central nervous system)

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161
Q

what cell are the ventricles lined with

A

ependymal cells

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162
Q

what are all ventricles continuous with (2)

A

all ventricles continuous with each other and continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord

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163
Q

what are the 4 main ventricles of the brain

A

lateral V, third V, cerebral aqueduct, and fourth V

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164
Q

what are the 2 parts of the lateral ventricles

A

2 hemispheres, the first and second ventricles

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165
Q

what is the shape of the lateral ventricles

A

horseshoe shaped (ram horns) from bending of the cerebral hemispheres

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166
Q

where is the third ventricle

A

lies in the diencephalon

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167
Q

what connects the third ventricles to both the lateral ventricles

A

the interventricular foramen

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168
Q

where is the cerebral aqueduct

A

lies in the midbrain

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169
Q

what is the purpose of the cerebral aqueduct

A

connects the third and fourth ventricles

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170
Q

where is the fourth ventricle

A

lies in pons and medulla oblongata

171
Q

what does the fourth ventricle connect to

A

connects to the central canal of the spinal cord

172
Q

what is the forth ventricle continuous with and what connects them

A

the subarachnoid space via median and 2 lateral apertures

173
Q

what is the purpose of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) (3)

A

provides a liquid cushion for the brain and spinal cord, filtrates blood, and removes waste

174
Q

where is the CSF formed

A

in choroid plexuses in the brain ventricles

175
Q

how is the CSF returned to blood and what what pace

A

returned in dural sinuses through arachnoid villi (500 ml/day)

176
Q

what are choroid plexuses

A

highly folded, capillary rich membranes

177
Q

what cells are closed associated (always near) choroid plexuses

A

ependymal cells

178
Q

what is the main protection for the brain

A

the blood brain barrier

179
Q

what does the blood brain barrier prevent

A

prevents most blood borne toxins from entering the brain

180
Q

what in the blood brain barrier prevents things from entering the brain

A

impermeable capillaries

181
Q

what CAN pass through the blood brain barrier

A

nutrients (oxygen), alcohol, nicotine, anesthetics, and tight junctions

182
Q

what are the tight junctions in the blood brain barrier between

A

between endothelial cells in brain capillaries

183
Q

what is the exchange dependent on in the tight junctions in the BB barrier

A

dependent on transport through capillary cells (not between cells)

184
Q

can anything pass through the tight junctions in the BB barrier and why

A

no, it is selective because the cells have specific transport proteins

185
Q

what is in the central column of gray matter in spinal pathways

A

dorsal and ventral horns that form an H shape

186
Q

what is in the lateral white matter in spinal pathways

A

made of myelinated and unmyelinated axons that run on tracts

187
Q

what are the two types of tracts in white matter

A

ascending and descending

188
Q

what are ascending tracts in white matter

A

sensory pathways, dorsal tracts

189
Q

what are descending tracts in white matter

A

motor pathways, ventral tracts

190
Q

what are projection axons (fibers)

A

what axons are called in tracts in white matter of spinal pathways

191
Q

in ascending pathways, how many neurons are typically in a series

A

2 or 3

192
Q

what are 1st order neurons in ascending pathways

A

sensory neurons

193
Q

what are 2nd order neurons in ascending pathways

A

interneurons in CNS

194
Q

what are 3rd order neurons in ascending pathways

A

interneurons in thalamus to cerebral cortex

195
Q

how are the pathways on each hemisphere related

A

they are paired, one on each side of the body

196
Q

what is decussation

A

most ascending pathways cross over

197
Q

what is the contralateral side of ascending pathways

A

information from one side crosses over to the other side

198
Q

what is the ipsilateral side of ascending pathways

A

the pathway remains on the same side, no crossing over

199
Q

what are the 3 primary ascending pathways

A

dorsal column pathway, spinothalmic pathway, and spinocerebellar pathway

200
Q

how many neurons are in dorsal column pathways

A

2 neurons in series

201
Q

what sense are involved with the dorsal column pathways

A

touch, pressure, conscious proprioception, and discriminative (fine detail) sense

202
Q

where are dorsal column pathways mainly

A

they run in dorsal columns (tracts); fasciculus gracilis (axons enter from lower body) and fasciculus cuneatus (upper body)

203
Q

what do 1st order neurons do in dorsal column pathways

A

enter spinal cord and ascend to medulla (no synapse until medulla oblongata)

204
Q

what do 2nd order neurons do in dorsal column pathways

A

synapse with 2nd order neurons in medulla, decussate and travel to thalamus

205
Q

what do 3rd order neurons do in dorsal column pathways

A

from thalamus to primary somatosensory area of cerebral cortex, processed to consciousness

206
Q

how many neurons are in spinothalmic pathways

A

3

207
Q

what senses are involved with spinothalmic pathways

A

pain, temperature, non-discriminative touch

208
Q

what do 1st order neurons do in spinothalmic pathways

A

synapse with 2nd order neurons immediately in dorsal horns of gray matter in spinal cord

209
Q

what do 2nd order neurons do in spinothalmic pathways

A

immediately decussate in spinal cord and ascend to thalamus

210
Q

what do 3rd order neurons do in spinothalmic pathways

A

2nd order neurons synapse with 3rd order neurons in thalamus to primary somatosensory area of cerebral cortex

211
Q

how many neurons are in spinocerebellar pathways

A

2

212
Q

what sense is involved with spinocerebellar pathways

A

proprioception to cerebellum (unconscious), cerebellum modifies body movements and knows the positions of body parts

213
Q

what do the 2 neurons do in spinocerebellar pathways

A

1st order neurons synapse with 2nd order neurons in dorsal horns (gray matter) of spinal cord, run in spinocerebellar tracts through pons to cerebellum

214
Q

do spinocerebellar pathways take part in decussation

A

either no decussation or cross back to same side on pons or cerebellum (ipsilateral info)

215
Q

what are descending pathways responsible for

A

deliver motor instructions from the brain to the spinal cord (motor neurons)

216
Q

what are the 2 groups of descending pathways

A

corticospinal (pyramidal) tracts and other motor pathways (extrapyramidal)

217
Q

what is corticospinal (pyramidal) pathways responsible for

A

precise and skilled voluntary movement

218
Q

where do neurons originate in corticospinal (pyramidal) pathways

A

in primary motor areas of cerebral cortex

219
Q

where is the synapse in corticospinal (pyramidal) pathways

A

directly on somatic motor neurons in ventral horns of gray matter in cord OR on short interneurons near motor neurons

220
Q

where do neurons decussate in corticospinal (pyramidal) pathways

A

in medulla (pyramids) as they descend but some decussate in spinal cord near somatic mortor neuron cell bodies

221
Q

what are other descending (extrapyramidal) pathways responsible for

A

unconscious, course, and postural movements

222
Q

where do other descending (extrapyramidal) pathways originate

A

in midbrain and pons (not cerebral hemispheres)

223
Q

where do other descending (extrapyramidal) pathways decussate

A

in the pons

224
Q

what accounts for the majority (80%) of brain mass

A

the cerebral hemispheres

225
Q

what divides the cerebrum into lobes

A

deep sulci

226
Q

what is the central sulcus

A

it separates the frontal and parietal lobes

227
Q

what 2 gyri is the central sulcus bordered by

A

precentral gyrus and postcentral gyrus

228
Q

what does cortex gray matter allow us to do

A

be aware of ourselves, communicate, remember, understand, initiate and control voluntary movements, and sensory perception

229
Q

what are the 4 main areas of Brodmann areas that you need to know

A

(1-3) primary somatosensory, (5,7) sensory association, (4) primary motor, and (6) pre-motor… basically mostor areas, sensory areas, and 2 association areas

230
Q

what are the 2 types of association areas

A

association axons and commissural axons

231
Q

what are association axons (fibers)

A

communications between different areas on same hemisphere

232
Q

what are commissural axons

A

communication between different hemispheres

233
Q

where is the primary motor cortex (motor area)

A

precentral gyrus (Brodmann area #4)

234
Q

what are the main types of cells in the the primary motor cortex

A

pyramidal cells

235
Q

what are pyramidal cells

A

large neurons of primary motor cortex

236
Q

where do the axons of pyramidal cells go in the primary motor cortex

A

axons descend in corticospinal (pyramidal) tracts through brainstem and spinal cord to control skilled movement

237
Q

what is a motor homunculus

A

a body map of the motor cortex

238
Q

what is somatotopy

A

body is represented spatially in many parts of the CNS; neurons to different body regions remain separated in CNS

239
Q

where is the premotor cortex (motor area)

A

anterior to the motor cortex (Brodmann’s #6)

240
Q

what does the premotor cortex control

A

voluntary actions dependent on sensory feedback (ex. following verbal instructions, catching a ball, etc.) and planning movements

241
Q

where is the primary somatosensory cortex (sensory areas)

A

along the postcentral gyrus (corresponds with Brodmann areas #1-3)

242
Q

what is the primary somatosensory cortex involved with

A

conscious awareness of general somatic sense (touch, pressure, pain, and temp)

243
Q

what is spacial discrimination

A

precisely locates a stimulus (primary somatosensory cortex)

244
Q

what are sensory association areas

A

cortical areas involved in conscious awareness and context of sensation

245
Q

where are the sensory association areas located and what sense is corresponded to each (4)

A

parietal lobes (general somatic sense)
temporal lobes (auditory)
occipital lobes (vision)
insula (taste)

246
Q

where are somatosensory association areas

A

posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex (Brodmann’s #5 and 7)

247
Q

what is the somatosensory association areas responsible for

A

integrate sensory inputs (touch, pressure, and others) and draws upon stored memories of past sensory experiences

248
Q

what is basal nuclei (ganglia)

A

group of gray matter nuclei deep within the cerebral white matter

249
Q

what makes up the corpus striatum

A

caudate nucleus (arches over thalamus), lentiform nucleus (lens shaped), and claustrum

250
Q

what are the 2 parts of lentiform nucleus

A

globus pallidus and putamen

251
Q

what are the functions of basal nuclei

A

cooperate with the cerebral cortex in controlling movements, receive input from many cortical areas, start stop and regulate intensity of voluntary movements, estimate passage of time

252
Q

what is the limbic system known as

A

the emotional brain

253
Q

where is the limbic system

A

medial aspect of cerebral hemisphere and within the diencephalon (hypothalamus)

254
Q

what is the limbic system composed of

A

septal nuclei, cingulate gyrus, hippocampal formation, and part of the amygdala

255
Q

what shape does the limbic system form

A

a ring structure

256
Q

what are septal nuclei in the limbic system responsible for

A

the pleasure region and sexual responses

257
Q

what is the cingulate gyrus in the limbic system responsible for

A

emotional responses to stimuli, including specific behaviors

258
Q

what is the amygdala in the limbic system responsible for

A

the fear center (including fearful memories), coordinate sympathetic responses to fear

259
Q

what is the hippocampal formation in the limbic system responsible for

A

(hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus) involved with long term memory and spatial memory

260
Q

what is in the center of the forebrain

A

the diencephalon

261
Q

what are the 3 structures composing the diencephalon

A

thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus

262
Q

what does the diencephalon border

A

the third ventricle

263
Q

what type of matter is the diencephalon made of

A

gray matter

264
Q

what makes up most of the diencephalon

A

the thalamus

265
Q

what do the nuclei in the thalamus do

A

act as relay stations for incoming sensory messages, the gateway to the cerebral cortex

266
Q

what do sensory axons do in the thalamus

A

All sensory axons to cerebral cortex synapse in at
least one of its nuclei

267
Q

what is the one exception to sensory axons passing through the thalamus

A

olfaction to limbic system bypasses thalamus

268
Q

what do the nuclei in the thalamus do to sensory signal

A

either amplify or tone down

269
Q

what are the 2 types of thalamic nuclei

A

lateral geniculate nucleus and medial geniculate nucleus

270
Q

what do lateral geniculate nuclei do in the thalamus

A

receive input from axons in optic nerves coming from retina and relay signals via optic tracts to primary visual centers in occipital lobe of cerebral hemispheres

271
Q

what do medial geniculate nuclei do in the thalamus

A

relay auditory information to cerebral hemispheres

272
Q

what is the main role of the hypothalamus

A

it is the main visceral control center of the body

273
Q

what are the 5 visceral functions of the hypothalamus

A

control of the autonomic nervous system, Regulation of body temperature, Regulation of hunger and thirst sensations, Controls secretion of pituitary gland hormones, and Control of emotional responses by organizing limbic input

274
Q

where does the epithalamus receive input from

A

the retina of eye

275
Q

what structure is included in the epithalamus

A

the pineal body

276
Q

what are the main functions of the pineal body

A

secrete the hormone melatonin, circadian rhythms, light/dark cycles

277
Q

what makes up the brain stem

A

the pons and medulla

278
Q

what nuclei are in the midbrain

A

nuclei of cranial nerve III and IV (eye movement)

279
Q

where are the cerebral peduncles on the midbrain

A

located on the ventral surface of midbrain

280
Q

what does the cerebral peduncle contain

A

pyramidal tracts, red nucleus, and substantia nigra

281
Q

where are the colliculi on the midbrain

A

inferior and superior on the dorsal surface

282
Q

where are the superior cerebellar peduncles on the midbrain

A

on dorsal surface, connects the midbrain to the cerebellum

283
Q

what surrounds the cerebral aqueduct in the midbrain

A

periaqueductal gray matter

284
Q

what are the 3 main functions of periaqueductal gray matter in the midbrain

A

Fight-and-flight reaction; panic behaviors (together with amygdala), Mediates response to visceral pain (cold sweat, etc.), Analgesia

285
Q

what do the nuclei in the superior colliculi do

A

contains nuclei that act in
visual reflexes; involuntary eye tracking of objects

286
Q

what do the nuclei in the inferior colliculi do

A

nuclei that act in reflexive responses to sound

287
Q

what are the 2 nuclei in the midbrain

A

substantia nigra and red nucleus

288
Q

what is the substantia nigra responsible for

A

Functionally linked to the basal nuclei

289
Q

what is the red nucleus responsible for

A

Minor motor control and course movements of limbs

290
Q

where are the pons

A

between the midbrain and medulla oblongata

291
Q

what axons are in the pons

A

axons of pyramidal tract

292
Q

what nuclei are in the pons

A

nuclei of cranial nerves V, VI, and VII

293
Q

where are pontine nuclei and what is their function

A

the pons and they are relay nuclei to cerebellum

294
Q

what is the input and output of pontine nuclei

A

Input from somatic motor cortex (Brodmann’s 4), Output to cerebellum: fine tune motor control coming
from cortex

295
Q

what is the most caudal level of the brain stem

A

the medulla oblongata

296
Q

what are the main parts of the medulla oblongata

A

pyramids, olives, nuclei of cranial nerves VIII-XII, and vestibular nuclei

297
Q

what nucleus is in the olives

A

inferior olivary nucleus

298
Q

what are the olives responsible for

A

Relay of sensory information to cerebellum; info
needed to coordinate movements

299
Q

what is the vestibular nuclei responsible for

A

Relay from vestibular apparatus in inner ear to
cerebellum, Relay info about equilibrium (balance)

300
Q

where is the reticular formation

A

the core of the medulla, pons, and midbrain

301
Q

what are the 3 columns of gray matter in the reticular formation

A

Midline raphe nuclei, Medial nuclear group, and Lateral nuclear group

302
Q

what are the 4 visceral centers of reticular formation

A

cardiac center -> heart rate
vasomotor center -> control blood pressure
medullary respiratory center
centers for hiccuping, sneezing, swallowing, and
coughing

303
Q

what is the reticular activating system responsible for

A

Maintains consciousness and alertness and Functions in sleep and arousal from sleep

304
Q

what is the cerebellum responsible for

A

Smoothes and coordinates body movements, Helps maintain equilibrium, and “Motor memory”

305
Q

what are the ridges called on the cerebeullum

A

folia

306
Q

what are the 3 main regions in the cerebellum

A

cortex (gray matter), internal white matter, and deep cerebellar nuclei (gray matter)

307
Q

what does the deep cerebellar nuclei do in the cerebellum

A

relay to primary somatic motor cortex
(output from cerebellum)

308
Q

what information does the cerebellum receive

A

On equilibrium (balance), On current movements of limbs, neck, and trunk, and From the cerebral cortex (motor control signals)

309
Q

what info does the cerebellum output

A

Cerebellum informs primary motor cortex of corrections
to motor patterns to smooth out movement and
maintain balance

310
Q

what do purkinje cells (neurons) of cerebellum cortex do

A

Integrate all sensory input and coordinate output and Information TO primary motor cortex via deep cerebellar nuclei

311
Q

what is the role of the 3 cerebellar peduncles

A

Thick tracts connecting the cerebellum to the brain stem

312
Q

what does the superior cerebellar peduncles do

A

(midbrain) Carry axons FROM cerebellum to primary motor cortex via deep cerebellar nuclei

313
Q

what does the middle cerebellar peduncles do

A

(pons) Primary motor cortex TO cerebellum via pontine nuclei

314
Q

what do the inferior cerebellar peduncles do

A

(medulla oblongata) Proprioception input TO cerebellum and Equilibrium/balance input from inner ear via vestibular nuclei in medulla TO cerebellum

315
Q

what is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

A

nervous structures outside the bran and spinal cord including cranial nerves and spinal nerves

316
Q

what are the functional components of the PNS

A

sensory inputs (somatic and visceral) and motor outputs (somatic motor system and visceral motor system)

317
Q

how do the spinal nerves connect to the spinal cord

A

by a dorsal root and a ventral root

318
Q

what type of neurons are in the dorsal root

A

sensory neurons

319
Q

where are the cell bodies of the dorsal root

A

located in the dorsal root
ganglion

320
Q

what type of neurons are in the ventral root

A

motor neurons arising from gray column

321
Q

what do the spinal nerves branch into

A

dorsal and ventral ramus

322
Q

which structures are mixed nerves in the PNS

A

spinal nerves and dorsal & ventral rami (have both sensory and motor neurons)

323
Q

what does the dorsal rami innervate

A

a horizontal strip of skeletal muscle and skin on dorsal side of axial region (back, back of neck and head)

324
Q

what does the ventral rami innervate

A

anterior thorax, anterior
abdomen, and limbs

325
Q

what does the ventral rami lead branch off

A

lateral and anterior cutaneous branches

326
Q

what is dermatome

A

an area of skin innervated by
spinal nerves

327
Q

what is the trunk innervated by

A

by cutaneous branches of
different spinal nerves

328
Q

what are the upper limbs innervated by

A

by nerves of the brachial plexus

329
Q

what is the anterior surface of the lower limbs innervated by

A

lumbar nerves

330
Q

what is the posterior surface and butt of the lower limbs innervated by

A

sacral nerves

331
Q

what are peripheral sensory receptors

A

Structures that pick up sensory stimuli from inside and outside of body

332
Q

what do peripheral sensory receptors do

A

Initiate electrical signals in sensory neuron axons

333
Q

what are the 3 types of peripheral sensory receptors

A

exteroceptors, interoceptors, and proprioceptors

334
Q

what are exteroceptors

A

sensitive to stimuli arising from outside the body

335
Q

where are exteroceptors

A

at or near body surfaces

336
Q

what senses do exteroceptors respond to

A

touch, pressure, pain, and temp

337
Q

what are interoceptors

A

receive stimuli from internal viscera

338
Q

what are proprioceptors

A

monitor degree of stretch

339
Q

where are proprioceptors

A

Located in musculoskeletal organs

340
Q

what are the 2 things the 3 sensory receptors exist as

A

nerve endings of sensory neurons OR receptor cells

341
Q

what are receptor cells

A

specialized epithelial cells or small neurons; these synapse with sensory neurons (usually with special senses)

342
Q

what are the 2 groups of receptors as nerve ending

A

free nerve endings and encapsulated nerve endings

343
Q

what do nerve endings of sensory neurons monitor

A

touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception, pain, and temp

344
Q

where are free nerve endings

A

Abundant in epithelia and underlying connective tissue, however, widely distributed

345
Q

what do free nerve endings respond to

A

pain and temp

346
Q

what are hair follicle receptors

A

they wrap around hair follicles and are a specialized type of free nerve endings

347
Q

what do encapsulated nerve endings consist of

A

one or more ends of sensory neurons

348
Q

where are encapsulated nerve endings

A

Enclosed in connective tissue and support cells

349
Q

what are 2 examples of encapsulated nerve endings

A

meissner’s corpuscle and pacinian corpuscle

350
Q

what is meissner’s corpuscles

A

Spiraling nerve ending surrounded by Schwann cells and connective tissue; DISCRIMINATIVE TOUCH

351
Q

where does meissener’s corpuscles occur

A

in the dermal papillae (skin), Abundant in sensitive, hairless areas of the skin

352
Q

what is pacinian corpuscles

A

Single nerve ending surrounded by layers of flattened Schwann cells/connective tissue (onion-like)

353
Q

where does pacinian corpuscles occur

A

in the deep dermis (skin) and hypodermis

354
Q

what is pacinian corpuscles sensitive to

A

deep pressure/vibration

355
Q

what do proprioceptors do

A

Monitor stretch in locomotory organs

356
Q

what are the 3 types of proprioceptors

A

Muscle spindles, Golgi tendon organs, Joint receptors

357
Q

what do muscle spindles do

A

measure the changing length of a muscle

358
Q

where are muscle spindles

A

Imbedded in the perimysium between muscle fascicles (about 50 spindles/muscle)

359
Q

what type of fibers make muscle spindles

A

intrafusal fibers (specialized skeletal muscle cells)

360
Q

what wraps around intrafusal fibers in muscle spindles

A

2 types of sensory nerve endings

361
Q

where are golgi tendon organs located

A

near muscle-tendon junction

362
Q

what do golgi tendon organs do

A

monitor tensions within tendons and prevent over contraction of muscle

363
Q

what are joint receptors

A

mainly synovial joints with sensory nerve endings within the joint capsules

364
Q

what do joint receptors do

A

monitor joint position

365
Q

what are receptor cells

A

Specialized cells; either modified epithelial cells or modified neurons

366
Q

where do recepetor cells synapse

A

synapse with sensory neurons

367
Q

what are 3 examples of receptor cells

A

photoreceptors, taste receptors, and hair cells

368
Q

what do somatic motor neurons do

A

control skeletal muscle cells

369
Q

what are somatic motor neurons

A

large, myelinated axons

370
Q

where are the cell bodies of somatic motor neurons

A

in brainstem and ventral gray matter of spinal cord

371
Q

where do somatic motor neurons exit from motor areas of the brain

A

exit via cranial nerves and through ventral root into spinal nerves

372
Q

what is a motor unit

A

one motor neuron and all the muscle cells it innervates

373
Q

how manny skeletal muscle cells are innervated by one motor neuron

A

multiple (several terminal branches of axon, each branch innervates a different skeletal muscle cell)

374
Q

what is a nerve plexus

A

a network of nerves

375
Q

where are the ventral rami nerve plexuses

A

in cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral regions

376
Q

what do the ventral rami nerve plexuses serve

A

primarily the limbs

377
Q

what is the order of the brachial plexus (C5-T1) (ex)

A

rami -> trunks -> divisions -> cords -> branches

378
Q

what is the autonomic nervous system

A

a system of visceral motor neurons (controls most visceral organs)

379
Q

what does the ANS innervate

A

smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, adipose tissue, and glands

380
Q

what visceral functions does the ANS regulate

A

Heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, urination

381
Q

what are the 2 divisions of the ANS

A

sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions

382
Q

do the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions innervate the same or different structures

A

the same structures but causes opposite effects

383
Q

what is the sympathetic system

A

activated during exercise, excitement, and emergencies (fight or flight)

384
Q

what is the parasympathetic system

A

concerned with conserving energy (rest and digest)

385
Q

what are the 2 motor neuron chains that make up the ANS

A

preganglionic neuron and postganglionic neuron

386
Q

where do the 2 motor neuron chains of the ANS synapse

A

in ganglia

387
Q

where are the preganglionic neurons

A

cell bodies are in the CNS

388
Q

where are the postganglionic neurons

A

cell bodies are in ganglia, axons to target cells

389
Q

are the postganglionic neurons of the autonomic system myelinated or nonmyelinated

A

nonmyelinated

390
Q

what is the main difference between the sympathetic and parasympathetic division

A

emerge from different regions of the CNS

391
Q

where does the sympathetic division emerge from

A

from T1-L2 regions of spinal cord (also called the thoracolumbar division)

392
Q

where does the parasympathetic division emerge from

A

emerge from 1) brain stem and 2) sacral region of spinal cord (also called the craniosacral division)

393
Q

where are the 2 outflows of the parasympathetic division (PSD)

A

cranial outflow and sacral outflow

394
Q

what does the cranial outflow of the PSD innervate

A

organs of the head, neck, thorax, and abdomen

395
Q

what does the sacral outflow of the PSD innervate

A

remaining abdominal and pelvic organs

396
Q

where do preganglionic fibers in the cranial outflow of the PSD run

A

oculomotor nerve (smooth muscle of eye), facial nerve (salivary glands, lacrimal glands), glossopharyngeal nerve (parotid salivary glands), and vagus nerve (many visceral organs in thorax and abdomen)

397
Q

where do branches of the vagus nerve run

A

autonomic nerve plexuses (network of autonomic nerve)

398
Q

where does sacral outflow of the PSD emerge from

A

S2-S4

399
Q

what does sacral outflow of the PSD innervate

A

organs of the pelvis and lower abdomen

400
Q

where are the preganglionic cell bodies from sacral outflow of the PSD located

A

in visceral motor region (lateral) of spinal gray matter

401
Q

where are the axons from sacral outflow of the PSD located

A

axons run in ventral roots to ventral rami (branch from rami to form splanchnic nerves)

402
Q

where does the sympathetic division emerge from

A

T1-L2

403
Q

where are the preganglionic axons in the sympathetic division from

A

lateral gray horn (visceral motor) of spinal cord

404
Q

what does the sympathetic division supply

A

visceral organs and strictures of superficial body regions (sweat glands, arrector pili, smooth muscle in eye)

405
Q

does the parasympathetic or sympathetic division have more ganglia

A

parasympathetic

406
Q

where is the sympathetic trunk ganglia located

A

on both sides of the vertebral column

407
Q

what is the sympathetic trunk ganglia linked by

A

short nerves into sympathetic trunks

408
Q

what are trunk ganglia joint to ventral rami by

A

by white and gray rami communicantes

409
Q

what are white rami

A

preganglionic axons; myelinated

410
Q

what are gray rami

A

postganglionic axons; non-myelinated

411
Q

what is the general pattern of rami in sympathetic trunk ganglia

A

Ventral rami -> white rami to ganglion -> grey rami back to ventral rami -> branches to target cells/target organs

412
Q

where are prevertebral ganglia

A

in abdomen and pelvis (lie anterior to vertebral column)

413
Q

what is a special feature of prevertebral ganglia

A

they are unpaired, not segmentally arranged

414
Q

when preganglionic neuron axons pass through trunk ganglia, what does it form

A

form splanchnic autonomic nerves to prevertebral ganglia

415
Q

where are the main prevertebral ganglia

A

near autonomic plexuses

416
Q

what is the sympathetic pathway to the head

A

preganglionic fibers start in spinal cord at T1-T4, fibers ascend in sympathetic trunk, synapse in superior cervical ganglion, postganglionic fibers associate with large arteries, carry to glands of head, smooth muscle in head, and vessels throughout the head

417
Q

what is the sympathetic pathway to thoracic organs

A

Preganglionic axons originate at spinal levels T1-T6, Some axons synapse in nearest sympathetic trunk ganglion but some either ascend or descend to neighboring ganglia, Postganglionic axons run directly to the target organ supplied in autonomic nerves

418
Q

what are the functions of the sympathetic pathway to thoracic organs

A

increase heart rate, dilate bronchioles, dilate blood vessels to the heart wall, inhibit the muscle and glands in the esophagus

419
Q

what is the sympathetic pathway to abdominal organs

A

Preganglionic fibers originate in spinal cord T5-L2, pass through adjacent sympathetic trunk ganglia, travel in thoracic splanchnic nerves, Synapse in prevertebral ganglia on the abdominal aorta

420
Q

what is the function of sympathetic pathways to abdominal organs

A

Inhibit activity of muscles and glands in visceral organs

421
Q

what is the sympathetic pathway to pelvic organs

A

Preganglionic fibers originate in spinal cord T10–L2, some axons descend in chain into pelvis and synapse in sympathetic trunk ganglia but other preganglionic axons synapse in prevertebral ganglia, Postganglionic fibers proceed from plexuses to pelvic organs in splanchnic nerves

422
Q

what constitutes the largest sympathetic ganglia

A

the adrenal medulla

423
Q

what does the adrenal medulla secrete

A

epinephrine (adrenaline) into the blood

424
Q

what stimulates the adrenal medulla to secrete epinephrine

A

preganglionic sympathetic fibers

Anatomy (13 decks)

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