Lecture - Chapter 2 Flashcards
What is learning?
experience>learning>change in behaviour
define experience (first step in learning)
exposure to external or internal events
- these events are called stimuli
*external = outside the body, internal = inside body
define learning
all relatively permanent changes in behaviour that result from experience that is not due to reflexes, fatigue, aging, drugs, injury or disease
define change in behaviour
measurable change in behaviour in the present or the possibility of change in the future
*measurable= can use instrumentation to measure change
learning is the process by which we
acquire new knowledge, skills, or attitudes
- modify existing knowledge based on new information or experiences
- reinforce previously learned knowledge through repetition and practice
learning occurs through various methods such as
- direct experience & hands-on practice
- teaching & instruction from others
- reflection (important tool, used to connect dots)
what are cognitive processes?
- higher order thinking/processing
- require a bit of labour (ability to form memory, retrieve memory, language, etc.)
different people/schools of thought offer distinct view of how learning occurs, ranging from
- cognitive processes to observable behaviour changes
- belief in innate knowledge to
- a focus on learning through experience and interaction with the world
what is the philosophy-based learning theory?
rationalism vs empiricism
- can trust and knowledge be found within us (rationalism) or can it be found outside of ourselves (empiricism)
What were plato’s beliefs?
as a rationalist, developed the belief that knowledge and truth can be discovered by self-reflection
What were aristotle’s beliefs?
the empiricist, used his senses to look for truth and knowledge in the world outside of him
*tells us experiences are important
What were socrates beliefs?
developed the dialectic method of discovering truth through conversations with fellow citizens
*gathering info that we naturally don’t have access to, based on idea that your knowledge/experience has allowed you to understand new perspectives you don’t have access to yet
discourse & reflection as toold for developing thinking owe much to _and _
plato and socrates
how did romans differ from greeks in their concept of learning?
- the roman catholic church had important influence in how ppl viewed knowledge
much learning was the memorization and recitation of scripture by rote and the learning of trades by apprenticeship (focused on application/problem solving)
what time period brought interdisciplinary learning? What is this?
renaissance period (15-17th centuries)
- combine knowledge of all the fields to produce new knowledge (richer way of knowing)
- ex, art = physics & optics, chem, math, geometry
the renaissance period was focused on much more than art _
- artists were much more aware of human anatomy, biology, the ways in which physics interacts with math and chemistry
describe copernicus
1473-1543
- best known for knowledge of the solar system, was astronomer and mathematician
- was saying we need to merge math and physics together
describe martin luther
1483-1546
- accredited for many things
- german theologian who talked about equality
- wanted education to be accessible to all (free for citizen/municipality)
what did rene rescartes do?
1596-1650
- revived the platonic concept of innate knowledge
*described in a variety of ways (scientist, philosopher, mathematician, religion)
describe the example of the reflex system in descartes’ POV
- if human steps on something, will result in reflex where they remove foot from hot area
- descartes was saying that there are natural systems in place that help us react to world, the building blocks are found within
- without it, you can’t have any kind of knowledge
*though humans had special innate knowledge that allowed us to do complex things
what did john locke do?
1632-1704
- revived aristotle’s empiricism with the concept that the child’s mind is a blank tablet (tabula rasa)
- though that the mind is furnished from experience
who said “the only habit which the child should be allowed to form is to contract no habit whatever”
jean-jacque rousseau
- didn’t give much freedom to students or listening to feedback
- flexibility was super controversial
What was Rousseau’s novel Emile about? How was this used to influence education?
the hero learns about life through his experiences in life
*free time/play was eventually extracted from this kind of writing
- a lot of trust placed on the student to learn and explore without constant supervision of the teacher
what did Immanuel Kant do?
1724-1804
- refined and modenized plato’s rationalist theory with his suggestion that a priori knowledge was knowledge that was present before experience (have some sort of neural machinery that allows learning to take place)
what did Edward L. Thorndike do?
1874-1949
- considered by many to be the first modern psychologist who sought to bring a scientific approach to the study of learning
- plotted learning of animals on x and y axis
how did thorndike measure behaviour of lab animals?
- put cats in puzzle boxes, the challenge for the cat is to figure out how to escape it
- was able to observe the number of times the animal was placed in the box (x axis/# of trials)
- y axis = how much time does it take to escape the puzzle box? (if learning is happening, time should decrease)
What is the skinner box?
- skinner built a contraption that measured behaviour without human interaction
- if you press lever down, the # is indication of behaviour
- can also measure how often the animal compresses these levers
learning theorists were very against making inferences on what’s happening in the mind - what did skinner think?
said we will only focus on what we obseve and not on what’s happening in the mind
*no assumptions!
How did the skinner box differ for mice vs pigeons?
mice: pressing lever = light goes on
pigeons: number of pecks on the hole = light goes on
Who said “these questions are all relevant in considering the problem of the child in the lower grades”
Skinner
- believed his work was very important (data from animals>humans)
Skinner came up with a fraction:
response rate
# of responses/time (secs, mins, hrs)
what did piaget do?
1896-1980
- he was the first to state that learning is a developmental cognitive process
*child is learning in the form of cognitive structures changing over time - will engage in more complex thinking as development occurs
who said “…it is possible to envisage a balance being struck, varying from subject to subject, between different parts to beplayed by memorizing and free activity. In which case, it is possible that the useof teaching machines will save time”
jean piaget
What did vygotsky do?
1896-1934
- include the notion of social-cultural cognition - the idea that all learning occurs in a cultural context and involves social interactions
- zone of proximal development
explain the notion of social cultural cognition
- ex. start to babble but as you get older, the production of sound becomes more complex
- want knowledge to be accumulated and people to be comfortable to eachother (learning can be impacted by interactions with others)
describe the zone of proximal development
space between what a learner can do without assistance and what a learner can do with guidance
- when ppl enter ZOPD, need to consider how much help they need
the progressives embraces whos ideas? (progressive learning theory)
- piaget’s ideas about child development
- vigotsky’s ideas about socially situated learning and the construction of knowledge
- the age-old empasis on both experience and thinking/reflection as a basis for learning
what did john dewey do?
- believed that education should not be seperate from life itself (like rousseau)
- education should be child-centred, guided by a well trained teacher who is grounded in pedagological and subject knowledge (takes on leader instead of boss)
- education ased on experience
co-op programs are an example of _’s ideas
John Dewey
*learning by doing
what did maria montessori believe?
1870-1952
- the task of the teacher becomes that of preparing a series of cultural activities spread over a specially prepared environment and then refraining from obtrusive interference
the progressive learning theory recognizes the role that both experience and reflexion play in
the development and ideas of skills
the progressive learning theory appreciates that reinforcement and practice plays a role in
the development of skills, and so do cognitive intent, effort, and reasoning
the progressive learning theory acknowledges the importance of developmental stages and recognize that development can also be encouraged through _
social interaction and the structuringof experiences within the learner’s zone of proximal development
While habits eventually transform complex actions into automatic, they involve _ when you first learn them
- a series of intricate tasks that demand intense concentration when you first learn them
name the 6 steps of the neurobiology of habit formation
1) learning and automatic behaviour
2) transition from goal-directed to habitual behaviour
3) circuitry for habit formation
4) dopaminergic signalling
5) reduced cognitive load
6) resistance to change
what is the basal ganglia? (learning and automatic behaviour)
a group of nuclei located deep within the brain, and one of its primary functions is to facilitate the learning and excecution of complex, sequential behaviours
the basal ganglia acts as a central hub for processing info related to
motor control, reward, and reinforcement
What is the basal ganglia a major subunit of? And it work with the _ to program movements
- the motor control system
- the cerebral cortex and other brainstem structures
if there is conscious thought not to engage in a certain behaviour, what can the cortex do?
override habitual (info) coming from the basal ganglia
The basal ganglia are also important in non-motor functions including
reward processing, decision-making, and learning
describe the structure of the caudate nucleus briefly
has caudate head, body and tail
- cell bodies towards the front, middle and back
what is the globus pallidus?
nuclei collecting info from our senses
How does the transition from goal-directed to habitual behaviour work?
when we initially learn a new behaviour/task, it typically involves goal-directed actions that require conscious effort and decision-making
- these actions are controlled by different brain regions, including the prefrontal cortex
- as we repeat these behaviours and they become more routine, the basal gangla comes into play
When we initially learn a new behaviour, it is _
goal directed
the prefrontal cortex is located _, and basal ganglia is located _
- near forehead (much newer from evolutionary standpoint)
- nestled deeper in brain
describe the circuitry for habit formation
- the basal ganglia, particularly the verntral striatum (nucleus accumbend) and dorsal striatum (caudate nucleus and putamen), is involved in the formation of habits
- it creates the neural circuits that link cues/triggers with specific actions and the rewarding outcomes associated with those actions
nucleus accumbens releases_
dopamine (feel good chemical that supports habit building)
- if there is a pleasurable component to it, we are more likely to repeat the behaviour in the future
describe dopaminergic signalling
- dopamine, a neurotransmitter, plays a key role in habit formation within the basal ganglia
- it reinforces the connection between cues, actions and rewards
- when a behaviour is associated with a pleasurable outcome, dopamine release strengthens the neural pathways, making the behaviour more likely to become a habit
the prefrontal cortex often doesn’t fully develop until around 25. What does this mean in terms of habits?
- prefrontal cortex assistst with breaking habits we want to change usually
- more difficult to do as it is developing
- early on, there is a possibility to engage in more behaviours that don’t suit us well
dopamine is released during _
novelty
- ex. first couple days in a new place = very pleasurable
- ex. social media! Scrolling to look for novelty
describe reduced cognitive load as it pertains to habit formation
as habits develop, the basal ganglia essentially automates thesse behaviours
- this means that over time, less cognititve effort and conscious control are required to perform these actions
- the basal ganglia allows us to perfrom habitual behaviour almost automatically, freeing up cognitive resources for other tasks
to reduce cognitive load during tasks, our brain makes the assumption that
things are good for us if they are pleasurable, and we should automate it if it happens often
describe resistance to change as it pertains to habit formation
habitual behaviours stored in the basal ganglia can be challenging to modify or break because they are deeply ingrained neural pathways
- this resistance to change is why breaking bad habits or forming new ones can be difficult
list the 5 steps in habit formation
- identify the cue (ex. time, reminder, feeling low energy)
- choose a routine
- find a reward
- repeat consistently
- adjust as needed
habits can be thought of as _associations. Over time, these cognitive associations _
implicit
- over time, cognitive associations between contextual cues and responses are processed in an increasingly automatic manner
describe how social media habits form
- social media users learan to associate specific internal and external cues (notifications, boredom) in performance context (locations, screens) with particular responses (ex. clicking)
- once habits are formed, these cues automatically bring the practiced response and trigger relevant behaviours even if rewards are later removed (streamlining behaviour to save mental energy
how does habits streamlining behabiour apply to social media use?
keep scrolling even if there isn’t anything good (reward removed)
Bayer et al (2022) suggest a given social media habit can be defined as _
a combination of 5 levels of analysis: platform, device, interface, hebaviour, and motor actions
*habit of using social media might be harder to break
give some examples of platform in social media use as a habit
insta, tiktok, snapchat
give some examples of device in social media use as a habit
macbook, iphone, ipad
give some examples of interface in social media use as a habit
message, stream, profile
give some examples of behaviour in social media use as a habit
fixating, reacting, scrolling
give some examples of motor actions in social media use as a habit
holding, tapping, dragging
how quickly are social media habits formed?
quickly, all platforms use novelty and ease (of access)
social media habits represent numerous combinations of _
smaller habit sequences
- these miniature habits are likely activated so automatically as to operate below the level of habit self-awareness
what are some benefits of social media for health?
- inc. positive mental health and well-being when SM interactions are encouraging and supportive
- support through need-specific groups
- access to mental resorces, professionals and other sources for help-seeking and support
- inc. mental health literacy and reduced stigma from information and educational campaigns
- builds social connection, community preparedness, resilience for adversities
- builds connection for global perspectives on mental health interventions
what are some harms to social media use?
- negavitity
- depression
- pro-suicide forums
- cyberbullying/stalking
- anorexia, builimia, obesity bodyshaming
- behavioral contagion through deadly challenges
- distrupted sleep patterns and disorders from excessive use
What’s step 1 of modying your smartphone use?
1.Set specific goals for when to use
your phone, such as scheduled times
or as a reward after tasks.
What’s step 2 of modifying your smartphone use?
2.Turn off your phone during specific
activities (e.g., class, meetings,
workouts, meals).
What’s step 3 in modifying your smartphone use?
3.Avoid bringing your phone to bed.
Charge it in another room.
What’s step 4 in modifying your smartphone use?
4.Replace phone use with healthier
activities like reading, meditating, or
socializing in person.
What’s step 5 in modifying your smartphone use?
5.Play the “phone stack” game with
friends: whoever checks their phone
pays the bill.
What’s step 6 in modifying your smartphone use?
6.Remove social media apps from your
phone; check them only on your
computer
What’s step 7 in modifying your smartphone use?
7.Gradually reduce compulsive phone
checks by extending the time between
them
What’s step 8 in modifying your smartphone use?
- accept missing out on some information to reduce phone dependency and stress
When trying to break habits, tracking progress or celebrating your achievements can further
reinfoce this positive habit loop
