Chapter 7 - Textbook

Question 1

Cognitive psychologists study higher-order mental processes like

Answer 1

attention, thinking, language, and memory

Question 2

In North America, the cognitive revolution emerged in the 1940s and 50s as a response to

Answer 2

the behaviourist school of thought, considered too simplistic for explaining behaviour due to its exclusive reliance on observable behaviour

Question 3

Today, cognitive psychology is an interdisciplinary discipline, taking inspiration from

Answer 3

epistemology, neuroscience, anthropology, psycholinguistics, and computer science

Question 4

describe Dr. Jerome Bruner’s contributions to cognitive psychology (1915-2016)

Answer 4

Many credit Bruner for putting cognitive psychology at centre stage due to his work on concept development and constructivism theory
- Bruner proposed a three-tiered system of how the brain organizes information as children develop.

Question 5

Describe the concept behind Bruner’s 3 tiered system

Answer 5

• When faced with new information, our brain processes and makes sense of the information using different learning modes that are organized in a hierarchy
• The learning modes progress in complexity of information processing from simple processing (enactive) to more complex, intellectual processing (symbolic)
• The type of processing occurring at any given time is in sync with the brain’s developmental stage.

Question 6

Bruner’s modes of learning were _ (name 3). Each correspond to _

Answer 6

enactive, iconic and symbolic modes of learning
- different stages of cognitive development (and are in sequential order)

Question 7

what capacity type goes along with each type of representational system?

Answer 7

enactive - motor (action based)
iconic - sensory (image based)
symbolic - intellectual (symbolic based)

Question 8

The cognitive approach to learning is an important component of educational psychology because of its focus on

Answer 8

how the brain processes, stores, and retrieves information

Question 9

Bruner’s constructivist model has been popular in designing

Answer 9

online educational games
- because of its simple-to-follow developmental stages, neatly organized in a sequential pattern: first enactive, then iconic, then symbolic.

Question 10

Consider an educational game that teaches math concepts. Here, each player must solve math problems to earn points. How does this applies to stage I?

Answer 10

During stage I of Bruner’s representational system, learning must require direct physical action
- The player must physically interact with the game in some way
- This could involve moving objects on the screen or manipulating tokens. The aim is to allow the player hands-on experience
- For instance, the player might drag and drop items to visually to add or subtract in an action-based learning method.

Question 11

how would the iconic stage relate to an educational game

Answer 11

Upon completion of stage I (the enactive level), the player enters the iconic stage, focusing on visual representation
- Here, the game might present the player with images to increase complexity
- The game might use pictures of apples or other familiar objects to represent numbers, requiring the student to solve problems without manipulating objects physically

Question 12

how would players in the symbolic stage interact with educational games?

Answer 12

• Finally, in the symbolic stage, the learner uses mathematical operators (+, -, ×, ÷)
• At this point, the student can solve problems by interpreting symbols and using abstract reasoning.

Question 13

What does the ‘enactive’ stage in Bruner’s conceptual model refer to?

Answer 13

The stage requiring direct physical action for learning

Question 14

As the developmental process continues, our brains have a tendency to become more skilled at_

Answer 14

organizing information into categories

Question 15

A category can be thought of as _

Answer 15

a rule for classifying items as being similar: specifying the attributes objects must possess relative to each other

Question 16

Coding systems start to form with information arranged into

Answer 16

hierarchical and related categories, such that the topmost category in the system is more general than are all the categories below it
- This allows for the making of quick and appropriate decisions when presented with the same type of item in the future

Question 17

At the same time, there are instances when the information presented to us is not clear enough to place in a category. Here, we use the rules of

Answer 17

abstraction

Question 18

give an example of abstraction rules in action in if you are learning about triangles in math class

Answer 18

• One may think of a general triangle using a standard prototype, such as a shape with three equal sides, such as an equilateral triangle
• However, given that there are many different types of triangles, your math teacher might begin explaining geometry with the prototypical example but then also provide you with examples of specific triangles, such as those that are at a 90-degree angle or with two equal sides, such as an isosceles
• These are exemplars or specific triangle types rather than a generalized triangle type

Question 19

contrast prototypes and exemplars. What do we use them for?

Answer 19

a prototype is a standard or general model, while an exemplar is a specific example of an idea or object
- We use both to categorize new and old information, thus making sense of the world around us

Question 20

What was unique about Bruner’s theories was that they combined

Answer 20

both cognitive and social elements, emphasizing the role of others on the learning process

Question 21

Similar to his predecessor, Lev Vygotsky (1896 - 1934) who developed the Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development, Bruner argued that . And that _

Answer 21

children learn best in the company of others
- And that cognitive development occurs through an important cultural tool we all have at our disposal: language

Question 22

Bruner’s work on cognitive development contributed to the development of the

Answer 22

Spiral Curriculum

Question 23

The spiral curriculum teaching and learning approach involves four major strategies:

Answer 23

[1] topics are revisited through the course
[2] there is an added layer of complexity each time a topic is revisited so that new learning relates back to previous learning
[3] there is progressive gain in skill and competency through the support of a knowledgeable tutor

Question 24

In contrast to Bruner who proposed that learning was a continuous process, Jean Piaget suggested that

Answer 24

learning occurs in distinct, age related, stages

Question 25

The 20th century brought an increased focus on

Answer 25

children’s cognitive development as more and more countries started to mandate that each child attend school by law

Question 26

To assist the French government in assessing which children required additional assistance, psychologist Alfred Binet and his colleague Theodore Simon developed what? Jean Piaget joi/ned this work by studying what

Answer 26

an intelligence scale to determine a child’s skills related to problem-solving, attention, and memory.
- Jean Piaget studied the relationship between children’s intellectual development level, chronological age, and the types of errors they made to understand their cognitive capacities better

Question 27

Piaget discovered that children had

Answer 27

age-specific reasoning that led to common errors at specific developmental stages

Question 28

Piaget’s interest was epistomology, define this

Answer 28

the branch of philosophy concerned with the acquisition of knowledge.

Question 29

He used the méthode clinique to collect much of his data. Describe this technique

Answer 29

• This is a semi-structured interview technique in which participants’ answers to questions often determine what the next question will be
• Borrowed from clinical psychology and especially from psychoanalysis this method requires the interviewer to listen while letting the child talk freely
• Here the interviewer asks follow-up questions unique to the child’s explanations

Question 30

One of the advantages of the méthode clinique lies in the

Answer 30

considerable flexibility it permits

Question 31

Piaget concluded that intellectual development involves

Answer 31

• the updating and modifying of cognitive schemas, a mental framework used to organize and interpret information
• Similar to Bruner’s learning modes, our schemas help us quickly make sense of the world.

Question 33

Piaget proposed two intellectual processes through which schemas are used, interpreted, and modified. These intellectual processes are responsible for all cognitive development:

Answer 33

[1] Assimilation, involving interpreting new information in light of an old schema
[2] Accommodation, a process by which old schemas are modified to fit new situations

Question 34

Piaget’s position is primarily a theory of human development; however, it is also a theory of

Answer 34

learning

Question 35

(piaget’s theory of development + learning) The acquisition of knowledge is a gradual developmental process made possible

Answer 35

through the interaction of the child with their environment

Question 36

(piaget’s theory of development + learning) The sophistication of children’s representation of the world is a function

Answer 36

of their stages of development

Question 37

(piaget’s theory of development + learning) Each stage is defined by

Answer 37

the thought structures they then possess

Question 38

While Piaget organized intellectual development into distinct stages, Vygotsky, on the other hand, suggested that

Answer 38

learning—and consequently development—is driven by social interaction

Question 39

Vygotsky’s theory is a great example of social constructivism. This idea proposes that

Answer 39

our personal histories, culture, and social interactions are key components in the development of the human brain

Question 40

Whereas Piaget’s theory places primary importance on internal forces that are within the child, Vygotsky’s system emphasizes

Answer 40

both internal and external forces suggesting an important interplay between cultural and cognitive development
ex. cultural tools such as language, traditions, and even technology teach us how to learn and interact with one another
- Based on Vygotsky, such cultural tools are used to shape and develop our thinking

Question 41

take for example the current access to technology in today’s environment. Based on Vygotsky, how are these tools used to shape and develop our thinking?

Answer 41

• Teachers and parents have access to information from around the world, allowing them to expose children to different cultures and ideas that can broaden understanding of topics that were not easily accessible just 20 to 30 years ago
• The interaction between children’s cognitive development and the cultural tool (technology) is an area of research that is currently new with many researchers exploring how digital environments shape learning processes and influence the way children think and acquire knowledge

Question 42

In summary, Vygotsky’s theory says a great deal about the forces that shape

Answer 42

children’s learning
- ex. the theory suggests that we are born with basic capacities that include our ability to sense and perceive stimuli in our environment, pay attention to specific aspects of the world around us, and then remember such interactions

Question 43

Vygotsky’s theory also says much about the special relationship that exists between

Answer 43

teachers and learners

Question 43

The Tools of the Mind curriculum reflects two aspects of Vygotsky’s theory that have especially clear and important educational implications:

Answer 43

• his notions of the zone of proximal development and of scaffolding are popular methods used in education all over the world

Question 44

why might Vygotsky’s cultural/cognitive theory be easily criticized?

Answer 44

not a highly scientific theory
- Some critics argue that Vygotsky’s description of stages in language development is not particularly useful or accurate
- However, many consider him to be one of the most influential and important psychologists of the twentieth century