Chapter 4 - Textbook

Question 1

Recall: Although he was a digestive physiologist, Pavlov’s contribution to psychology was discovering _

Answer 1

a type of learned behaviour that later became known as classical conditioning.

Question 2

This type of learning (classical conditioning) occurs because of the _

Answer 2

natural tendency of humans and animals to develop conditioned reflexes

Question 3

Pavlov’s foundational work set the stage for _

Answer 3

exploring new ways of how associative learning shapes behaviour in both human and non-human animals.

Question 4

American psychologist Edward Thorndike was particularly interested in _

Answer 4

animal intelligence, whether animals learned through trial-and-error or some other process that allowed them to solve challenges in their environments

Question 5

Edward Thorndike’s (1874 - 1949) experiments were simple: his participants were _ and his apparatus were _

Answer 5

cats, puzzle boxes

Question 6

Thorndike demonstrated that his participants could _.

Answer 6

• quickly solve puzzles by escaping closed boxes based on stimuli-response connections

Question 7

Thorndike later called the tendency to repeat previous, successful behaviours _

Answer 7

the Law of Effect

Question 8

describe why Thorndike notices the law of effect

Answer 8

This is because the cats initially exhibited random behaviours, such as scratching, biting, and pushing at the box’s walls
- Over time, they learned to repeat the specific actions that led to their escape, such as pulling a lever in a specific orientation or with certain amount of pressure

Question 9

The learning, that gradually occured over time, showed to Thorndike the effectiveness of _

Answer 9

trial and error learning
- his participants were beginning to make connections between specific actions and their successful outcomes through trial-and-error learning

Question 10

What descibes the Law of Effect based on Edward Thorndike’s experiments?

Answer 10

it is the development of associations between specific actions and successful outcomes through trial and error

Question 11

Learning theories often rely on two major explanations for why connections (or associations) form between stimuli:

Answer 11

contiguity and reinforcement

Question 12

compare contiguity and reinforcement

Answer 12

• contiguity is when learning occurs due to two events or stimuli being experienced close together in time and space, leading the organism to form an association due to experience
• reinforcement involves strengthening a behaviour by following it with a positive outcome or reducing it by following it with a negative outcome

Question 13

How did Thorndike’s research support the role of reinforcement?

Answer 13

he observed that behaviours followed by satisfying outcomes were more likely to be repeated and non-satisfying outcomes were less likely to be repeated

Question 14

In Thorndike’s experiments, the participants produced

Answer 14

correct responses over trials (i.e., repeated exposure to the puzzle).

Question 15

In Thorndike’s view, the correct response was gradually _, whereas the incorrect responses were _ over time.

Answer 15

stamped in, stamped out

Question 16

The reason why specific responses increase over time while others decrease is due to the _

Answer 16

Law of Effect
- if a reward follows a response, it will increase over time
- if a response is followed by no reward or something unpleasant, then that response will decrease

Question 17

Thorndike further proposed a Law of Readiness: (define)

Answer 17

an organism’s motivation to perform a behaviour affects the likelihood of learning
- If an organism is ready to act, it will be satisfied by the action; if not ready, the action will cause annoyance

Question 18

List the 5 subsidiary law Thorndike proposed that supported his primary Law of Effect

Answer 18

1) law of multiple responses
2) law of set or attitude
3) law of prepotency of elements
4) law of response by analogy
5) associative shifting

Question 19

define law of multiple responses

Answer 19

when in a new situation, an organism may try multiple responses (ie. trial-and-error) until it finds one that leads to the best possible or desirable solution

Question 20

define law of set of attitude

Answer 20

previous experiences can afffect how new stilumi are perceived

Question 21

define law of prepotency of elements

Answer 21

the capacity to selectively focus on significant details in a situation or an environment while ignoring the irrelevant parts

Question 22

define law of response by analogy

Answer 22

when new learning situations are approached using past (similar) experiences

Question 23

define associative shifting

Answer 23

gradually shifting the response from one stimulus to another through a series of intermediate steps

Question 24

The major view that psychology as a discipline was advocating now was the Theory of Connectionism, suggesting that _

Answer 24

learning occurs through forming associations between stimuli and responses, which laid the groundwork for future behaviourist research

Question 25

B. F. Skinner (1904 - 1990) was one of the first researchers to formally start to separate _ from what later came to be known as _

Answer 25

classical conditioning, instrumental or operant conditioning

Question 26

Responses elicited by a stimulus are labelled as _

Answer 26

respondents, indicating that the organism reacts to the environment involuntarily

Question 27

in classical conditioning, an experimental participant’s behaviour is elicited by a _, in the case of instrumental conditioning, the organism is _

Answer 27

conditional stimulus, in more control of their behaviour.

Question 28

Skinner supported Thorndike’s view that the tendency for an animal to engage in specific behaviours occurs based on _

Answer 28

the outcome of any given behaviour

Question 29

Skinner called these behaviours (responses emitted by an organism are labeled) _

Answer 29

operants
- because an organism’s responses operate on the environment to bring about change that leads to some consequence that, in return, dictates whether a particular response will happen again
Responses emitted by an organism are labeled as operants, indicating that the organism voluntarily acts on the environment.

Question 30

A significant critique of Thorndike’s work by Skinner was that _

Answer 30

the experimental procedure of using puzzle boxes was time-consuming and labour-intensive

Question 31

What was Skinner’s solution to Thorndike’s seemingly flawed puzzle boxes?

Answer 31

• Skinner designed an experimental chamber where a machine could measure behaviour rapidly and directly
• famously called the Skinner box, this apparatus allowed experimental participants to press levers or peck lighted keys to make a response across a given period of time
• recording the animal’s responses independently generated a response rate—measuring the strength of any behaviour

Question 32

Skinner argued that behaviour should be studied and explained in the_

Answer 32

simplest and most straightforward manner possible

Question 33

The Behaviourist approach to understanding behaviour relied on three major assumptions, describe the first

Answer 33

• the first is a focus on directly observable behaviour
• instead of theorizing about a person’s internal thoughts when they feel hungry, a behaviourist focuses on observable actions, such as the person going to the kitchen and preparing a meal

Question 34

The Behaviourist approach to understanding behaviour relied on three major assumptions, describe the second

Answer 34

• the second assumption is that psychology is an objective science
• for example, in a study on learning and food reward, researchers might measure the number of times a rat presses a lever to receive food
• the number of lever presses allows for the collection of measurable data that is easy to interpret by any researcher

Question 35

The Behaviourist approach to understanding behaviour relied on three major assumptions, describe the third

Answer 35

• behaviour analysis occurs without speculation on subjective mental events or physiological events
• or instance, when studying how children learn to share, behaviourists observe and record how often sharing occurred and the conditions of sharing behaviour without speculating on the children’s thoughts or the exact brain processes involved in the decision to share

Question 36

The behaviourists laid the groundwork for better understanding how the process of- shapes _

Answer 36

reinforcement shapes behaviour

Question 37

define reinforcer

Answer 37

• any stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of a behaviour repeating when it follows that behaviour
• Reinforcers can be positive, providing a desirable outcome (such as a reward), or negative, removing an undesirable outcome (such as relieving discomfort)
• Reinforcers strengthen the behaviour they follow, encouraging its recurrence in the future

Question 38

define reinforcement schedules

Answer 38

• the rules or guidelines by which an organism experiences reinforcements in response to specific behaviours
• these schedules are important in first shaping and then maintaining behaviour

Question 39

Reinforcement schedules are based on _ or _

Answer 39

duration (the time lag between reinforcers) or ratio (the number of responses required before reinforcers)

Question 40

Each reinforcement schedule results in different outcomes on _ and _. Which types of schedules are more difficult to change?

Answer 40

the speed of learning and the persistence of any given behaviour
- Curiously, variable schedules of reinforcement lead to behaviours that are more difficult to change in comparison to to fixed schedules

Question 41

name the 5 types of reinforcement schedules

Answer 41

• continuous schedule of reinforcement
• fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement
• variable ratio schedule of reinforcement
• fixed interval schedule of reinforcement
• variable interval schedule of reinforcement

Question 42

describe continuous schedule of reinforcement through an example

Answer 42

Consider the example of dog training:
- when a dog is trained on a continuous reinforcement schedule, it is rewarded with a treat each time it performs the desired behaviour
- for example, if a trainer is teaching a dog to sit, they would give the dog a treat each time it successfully sits on their command
- the immediate and consistent reward helps the dog associate (or connect) the behaviour of sitting with a positive outcome, reinforcing the behaviour and also increasing the likelihood of it being repeated in the future

Question 43

describe fixed schedules of reinforcement through an example

Answer 43

In certain manufacturing or assembly line jobs, workers are paid based on the number of units they produce
- for example, a factory worker may receive a certain amount of money for every 100 units they produce. In this case, the fixed ratio is 100, and the reinforcer (i.e., payment) is delivered after every 100 units made
- this type of reinforcement schedule encourages workers to maintain a high production rate in order to reach the fixed ratio and receive the monetary reward

Question 44

describe variable ratio schedules of reinforcement with an example

Answer 44

In many slot machines, the reinforcement (winning) is delivered based on a random ratio schedule. In this example, let’s consider a slot machine that has a random ratio schedule of 1:30
- the occurrence of winning is unpredictable and can happen at any point within those 30 pulls

Question 45

describe fixed interval schedules of reinforcement with an example

Answer 45

Let’s imagine that Chen works at a company where all employees in managerial positions are given a bonus every six months
- the bonus in this example is the reinforcer, and the six-month payment schedule is the interval

Question 46

describe variable interval schedule of reinforcement

Answer 46

Now, let’s imagine a competitive company
- all employees in managerial positions are given a bonus, but at unpredictable times throughout the year and some years, they may not get a bonus at all
- chen receives an offer with a slightly higher salary at the competitive company
- however he turns down the position citing reinforcement theory suggesting that although the pay will be higher in the competitive company, in the long run, he will have to work more due to a variable schedule of reinforcement

Question 47

reinforcers can also be _

Answer 47

activities
- ex. more preffered activites may reinforce less preferred ones

Question 48

Describe the premack principle

Answer 48

• pleasant tasks are inherently reinforcing
• when we place reinforcing tasks after a less preferred activity, we increase the likelihood of that less preferred activity being repeated—the Premack Principle

Question 49

what 4 steps can be used to encourage a behaviour?

Answer 49

1) identify the desired behaviour (spending time on homework is less preferred)
2) identify the preferred activity (playing video games is preferred activity)
3) application of the premack principle (homework must be completed before video games)
4) outcome (motivation to finish hw on time)

Question 50

what statement describes the concept of reinfocement in behaviourism according to Skinner?

Answer 50

Reinforcers are only provided after certain behaviors and they increase the likelihood of these behaviors recurring

Question 51

In the attention economy, different digital platforms compete for _

Answer 51

users’ attention (a limited and valuable resource!)

Question 52

digital platforms use _ to keep users engaged

Answer 52

engaging and often addictive experiences (such as social media interactions or simply the presentation of different streaming content) as reinforcers to keep users engaged

Question 53

how do digital platforms apply the premack principle to the attention economy?

Answer 53

• applying the Premack Principle to the attention economy, platforms may design their interfaces and content to make highly preferred activities (like checking notifications, watching videos, or receiving likes) available only after users engage with less preferred activities (such as viewing ads or scrolling through content)
• this creates a cycle where users are continually motivated to perform the desired actions (spending time on the platform) to access the rewarding activities

Question 54

Remember that in the attention economy, our attention is a _

Answer 54

commodity
- companies often use various strategies to capture and hold our attention for as long as possible

Question 55

why is attention a commodity in the attention economy?

Answer 55

• this is because the longer a company can keep someone’s attention, the more opportunities there are for monetization
• for instance, social media platforms can show more advertisements to users who spend more time on their platform

Question 56

The cycle of reinforcement created by social media may lead to various negative outcomes, including

Answer 56

decreased productivity, disrupted sleep patterns, and increased anxiety and depression

Question 57

social media platforms have seen an exponential increase in users, surpassing_

Answer 57

four billion globally
*led to excessive use that can be problematic and interfere with daily activities

Question 58

define PSMU

Answer 58

Problematic social media use (PSMU) is characterized by an uncontrollable urge to engage with social media, with excessive time spent on these platforms
- also known as social media disorder, social media addiction, and social networking addiction

Question 59

PSMU behaviour can negatively impact _

Answer 59

• learning, productivity, real-life relationships, and mental health

Question 60

What could be a potential adverse effect of continuous reinforcement schedules in the context of digital platforms and the attention economy?

Answer 60

Users might lose interest due to the predictability of the reinforcement

Question 61

what are the 6 components of problematic social media use?

Answer 61

1) Salience
2) Mood Modification
3) Tolerance
4) Withdrawal Symptoms
5) Conflict
6) Relapse

Question 62

define salience

Answer 62

the domination of social networking as the single most important aspect of the person’s life

Question 63

define mood modification

Answer 63

an arousing “buzz” or “high” when participating in social media for the purpose of “escape” or “numbing”

Question 64

define tolerance

Answer 64

the presence of a gradual increase of time spend on social networking sites

Question 65

define withdrawal symptoms

Answer 65

unpleasant affective states or physical effects when the person is unable to engage in social networking

Question 66

define conflict

Answer 66

tension between social networking and other important activities in the individual’s life, i.e. hobbies, interests, etc

Question 67

define relapse

Answer 67

the tendency to revert to repeated patterns of excessive social networking after periods of control