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Learning, Measuring and Shaping Behaviour > Chapter 6 - Textbook > Flashcards

Chapter 6 - Textbook Flashcards

1
Q

Our ability to learn about the world around us has given us countless _ throughout human evolution

A

survival advantages

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2
Q

how has our ability to learn about the world given us survival advantages?

A
  • ancestors quickly learned from their changing environments
  • they could discriminate between edible plants, recognize and predict predator behaviour and movement patterns, and develop tools for building shelter, hunting, and eating allowing them to survive and ultimately reproduce to pass on the genes that benefited their future generations
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3
Q

The Theory of Evolution is the:

A

scientific explanation of the diversity in plants and animals as they exist on earth

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4
Q

The theory of evolution’s elegance explains why _

A

we see variations between species worldwide based on their geographical locations

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5
Q

As a naturalist and biologist, Charles Darwin was one of the first to _

A

formally publish a theory on evolution

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6
Q

Due to Darwin’s meticulous record keeping of observations in his homeland of Britain and aboard his journey on the HMS Beagle (1831 to 1836), he could describe

A
  • how natural selection allows organisms to change over evolutionary time across generations
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7
Q

The mechanism of natural selection is elegant in its simplicity:

A

the unique features of different plants and animals can assist them in surviving and reproducing in their unique environments, further enabling them to pass advantageous characteristics to future generations

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8
Q

Darwin formulated the process of natural selection with three fundamental ideas. Name the 1st

A

All individuals of a species vary behaviorally and physiologically

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9
Q

Darwin formulated the process of natural selection with three fundamental ideas. Name the 2nd

A

Some of this variation is genetic (heritable), so offspring will tend to resemble their parents more than the offspring resemble other unrelated individuals

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10
Q

Darwin formulated the process of natural selection with three fundamental ideas. Name the 3rd

A

Among individuals of any given species, there is typically competition for important resources (such as food, mates, and shelter)

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11
Q

What fundamental ideas did Charles Darwin formulate about the process of natural selection?

A

All individuals of a species vary behaviorally and physiologically and offspring tend to resemble their parents more than unrelated individuals. There is also typically competition for resources among individuals of any given species

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12
Q

Since Darwin’s time, evolutionary psychologists and biologists have sought to understand how _

A

different species (including humans) evolve and adapt to their environments over generations

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13
Q

our capacity to learn is

A

adaptive

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14
Q

why is our capacity to learn adaptive?

A

because it helps us navigate the various challenges of our environment

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15
Q

give an example of how are learning is adaptive

A

For example, knowing that specific cues are associated with danger increases our chances of survival because we avoid interacting with potentially harmful parts of our surroundings.

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16
Q

describe taste aversion learning

A

Here, an organism quickly learns to avoid a specific food type after a single negative experience (e.g., illness after consumption)
- Taste aversion learning is a powerful example of an adaptive mechanism
- this type of learning is long-lasting because the body quickly learns to avoid ingesting a potentially life-threatening food item
- After all, it could be fatal if ingested in the future

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17
Q

Taste aversion learning is a powerful example of an _ mechanism

A

adaptive

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18
Q

Taste aversion learning challenges traditional _ principles

A

classical conditioning

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19
Q

So far, we’ve learned that for classical conditioning to be successful, multiple pairings are required. How does this differ from taste aversion learning?

A

a particular type of learning experience, taste aversion learning, can occur after a single experience with a toxic item.
- Think about the last time you had food poisoning

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20
Q
  • a single pairing of ingesting food followed by illness often leads to a strong and lasting aversion to that food through what is called
A

one-trial acquisition (OTA)

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21
Q

You may also recall that the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are presented close in time in most classical conditioning scenarios. How does this compare to taste aversion learning?

A
  • in taste aversion learning, there can be a significant delay, sometimes hours, between the consumption of the food (conditioned stimulus) and the onset of illness (unconditioned stimulus)
  • Yet, a strong aversion can still form, which is called delayed conditioning
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22
Q

An additional and unique quality of taste aversion learning is its selectivity. Describe

A
  • both human and non-human animals are more likely to connect illness with a novel taste
  • This selectivity suggests that taste aversion is not merely a result of general associative learning but rather a specialized form of adaptive learning that has evolved for a specific purpose - our survival
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23
Q

The evolution of the vertebrate brain has resulted in the development of three major divisions of the central nervous system: name these. They are each responsible for what?

A

the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain
- different functions allowing organisms to survive and thrive

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24
Q

which part of the brain is the oldest from an evolutionary perspective?

A

the hindbrain

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25
Q

the hindbrain includes brain structures that _

A

control, coordinate and balance, voluntary and involuntary movements
- It is involved in basic functions that sustain life such as breathing, heart rate, and balance

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26
Q

list the components of the hindbrain

A

medulla oblongata, pons, cerebellum

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27
Q

describe the function of the medulla oblongata

A

regulates autonomic functions such as HR and breathing

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28
Q

describe the function of the pons

A

relays signals between different parts of the nervous system and plays a role in sleep and arousal

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29
Q

describe the function of the cerebellum

A

coordinates voluntary movements and balance

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30
Q

Describe the midbrain

A
  • includes the sensory and motor components that assist with orienting responses to sensory inputs such as turning your head to locate a sound in the environment
  • It allows us to share visual and auditory maps that coordinate and work together to assist us in responding to the world around us
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31
Q

list the components of the midbrain

A

tectum, tegmentum

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32
Q

describe the function of the tectum

A

visual and auditory information

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33
Q

describe the tegmentum function

A

contains nuclei that play a role in movement and arousal

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34
Q

Within the forebrain, the diencephalon includes the_

A

thalamus and hypothalamus

35
Q

the thalamus does what?

A
  • coordinates and integrates sensory functions by connecting to various regions of the cerebral cortex, such as the major lobes of the brain: occipital (vision), temporal (audition), parietal (somatosensory), and frontal (movement and cognition) lobes
36
Q

what does the hypothalamus do?

A
  • closely with the pituitary gland, produces neurohormones that, in part, assist with our emotional responses
  • sub-cortical brain circuits, such as the basal ganglia, assist with motor movements related to habit formation, and the limbic circuit helps with emotion regulation and short-term memory
37
Q

list the components of the forebrain

A

diencephalon, telencephalon, basal ganglia, the limbic system

38
Q

describe the function of the diencephalon

A

consists of the thalamus, acting as a relay station for sensory information, and the hypothalamus, regulating homeostasis and controlling the endocrine system

39
Q

describe the telencephalon

A

includes the cerebral cortex, which is responsible for higher-order functions such as thought, language, decision-making, and consciousness

40
Q

describe the basal ganglia

A

involved in movement regulation and procedural learning

41
Q

describe the limbic system

A

essential for emotion, memory, and motivation

42
Q

The forebrain’s development has enabled advanced_

A

cognitive abilities and complex social interactions, with the cerebral cortex’s enlargement and increased complexity in humans facilitating cognitive processes that allow for language, abstract thought, problem-solving, and self-awareness

43
Q

Among the different parts of the brain, researchers have gathered the most detailed information about_

A

the hippocampus, which plays a crucial role in memory formation all thanks to the now infamous patient, H.M

44
Q

describe the H.M case

A

When Henry Molaison (H.M.) was seven years old, he had a bicycle accident, resulting in him falling unconscious for 5 minutes
- although it is not clearly understood whether the accident led to long-term damage, three years following the accident, Henry began to experience minor epileptic seizures followed by major seizures at the age of 16 years old
- unfortunately, anti-convulsant drugs were not able to control the frequency of the seizures

45
Q

what treatment was h.m. given

A

In 1953, when H.M. was 27 years old, he underwent bilateral removal of some parts of his temporal lobes including the hippocampus and the parahippocampal gyrus.

46
Q

The neurosurgeon who performed H.M.’s surgery worked closely with _

A

a young neuroscientist from McGill University - Dr. Brenda Milner
- Together, the duo published a paper about the effects of the surgery in the Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry in 1957
- Since then, the Scoville & Miller article has been cited more than ten thousand times!

47
Q

In this publication (Dr. Milner’s), they reported that the patient had _

A

a “striking and totally unexpected grave loss of recent memory” without noticeable impairment of his intellectual performance or technical skills (Scoville & Milner, 1957)

48
Q

In his book “The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory,” who shared insights from his work with H.M?

A

Professor Howard Eichenbaum (1947-2017), the lead investigator at the Laboratory of Cognitive Neurobiology at Boston University

49
Q

what interaction did Dr. Eichenbaum have with h.m. that points to his specific memory deficit?

A
  • mcdonald’s cup
  • repeated “Hey, I knew a fellow named John McDonald when I was a boy!” each time he saw it
50
Q

Which of the following brain divisions is involved in coordinating voluntary and involuntary movements, and basic functions like breathing, heart rate and balance?

A

hindbrain

51
Q

what award did Dr. Milner win?

A

order of canada
- At the age of 106, Dr. Milner’s name appeared on Canada’s Walk of Fame alongside celebrities like Ryan Reynolds, Céline Dion, and Margaret Atwood (Lalonde, 2024).

51
Q

when did h.m. die and what came of it?

A

H.M. died in 2008. Due to his fame as one of the most prominent patient in history, The New York Times published an obituary about him
- As one final contribution to science and our understanding of memory, neuroscientists were able to study the anatomy of H.M.’s brain using MRI imaging conducted immediately postmortem

52
Q

psychological phenomenon such as habituation and sensitization are also studied by biologists interested in learning and memory. The model organism most intensively studied is the

A
  • aplysia (a giant sized snail with a small shell)
  • These giant snails are favoured by biologists and neuroscientists alike as they have large, easily accessible neurons, making them ideal for studying the neurobiological mechanisms of learning and memory
53
Q

Habituation occurs in the Aplysia by _

A

repeatedly applying a mild, harmless tactile stimulus to its siphon resulting in the gill withdrawal reflex
- The first few times that the tactile stimulus is applied, there is a powerful withdrawal response
- However, over time and with repeated application of the same stimulus at regular intervals, the withdrawal response gradually decreases

54
Q

The change in behaviour (habituation) is due to_

A

a reduction in synaptic efficacy between sensory neurons that detect the touch and motor neurons that make the response
- This is a great example of basic learning because the organism learns to ignore a non-threatening stimulus over time

55
Q

describe how sensitization is studied in the Aplysia

A
  • researchers study how the gill withdrawal reflex occurs after exposure to a harmful or noxious stimulus such as repeated mild electric shock
  • he resulting enhanced response is due to heightened neural activity and increased synaptic strength between sensory and motor neurons
56
Q

Both habituation and sensitization are two forms of learning leading to

A

synaptic plasticity

57
Q

As a result of repeated experience, synaptic plasticity allows for

A

the connections between neurons to strengthen or weaken over time

58
Q

name the full name for LTP and LTD

A

LTP: long term potentiation
LTD: long term depression

59
Q

describe ltp

A

LTP occurs when two neurons are active simultaneously
- The postsynaptic neuron has an increased ability to respond to signals from the presynaptic neuron
- therefore, LTP strengthens the synapses, or connections, between neurons. It is one of the primary ways our brain changes due to experience

60
Q

describe ltp

A

While LTP strengthens synaptic connections, LTD weakens or decreases the strength of synaptic connections between neurons due to reduced neuronal activity

61
Q

why are rodent models particularly valuable for studying the underlying mechanisms of synaptic plasticity

A

The hippocampus, a critical region for learning and memory, shares many anatomical and functional similarities between humans and rodents

62
Q

The hippocampus is nestled in the _ within the_ centre of the brain, the _ system

A

parahippocampal gyrus, emotional centre, limbic system

63
Q

The cytoarchitecture of the hippocampus is organized such that a distinct circuit exists with discrete connections between individual neurons in neuroanatomical areas such as the _

A

CA1, CA3, and the dentate gyrus

64
Q

To experimentally bring about LTP, researchers first record _

A

baseline activity of synaptic strength by recording the activity of neurons in and around the dentate gyrus

65
Q

The distinct organization of the hippocampus allows researchers to

A

stimulate neurons in area CA1 to then observe the activation of neurons in area CA3

66
Q

LTP results when

A

a high-frequency electrical pulse is applied repeatedly resulting in a series of ongoing and successive action potentials

67
Q

The aim of the high-frequency stimulation is to mirror the _

A

natural firing patterns of neurons during a learning session when action potentials are naturally occurring at a high rate of succession.

68
Q

Long-Term Depression (LTD) is studied in a similar manner, how is it studied?

A

Similar to the study of LTP, baseline measurements of synaptic strength first occur
- to induce LTD, researchers apply a low-frequency stimulation protocol: whereas the protocol is 100Hz per 15 minutes in the case of LTP, LTD typically requires 1Hz per 15 minutes - - This low-frequency stimulation engages a different set of molecular and signalling pathways within the neuron compared to those in LTP

69
Q

learning can take at least 4 forms (name them+2)

A

perceptual learning, stimulus-response learning, motor learning, relational learning
- habbian learning, instrumental learning

70
Q

describe perceptual learning

A

involves recognizing and locating people, objects, and other stimuli in our environment
- This type of learning may involve recognizing entirely new items or discerning changes and variations in familiar ones

71
Q

The cerebral cortex includes a number of areas that work together resulting in two visual pathways: (perceptual learning)

A

[1] the ventral stream, responsible for object recognition (the WHAT pathway), and [2] the dorsal stream, responsible for perceiving the location of objects (the WHERE pathway)

72
Q

describe stimulus-response learning

A

such as in the case of classical conditioning involves learning to make an automatic response due to the presentation of a stimulus
- this type of learning establishes connections between the neural circuits involved in perception and those involved in movement

73
Q

motor learning engages the _ system

A

motor
- Any behaviour involving movement, such as speaking, playing a musical instrument, dancing, riding a bicycle, or scrolling this page, requires a series of intricate movements organized sequentially

74
Q

the process of motor learning also needs _ guidance. Describe

A

environmental sensory guidance
- the sensory input provides critical information that further refines motor actions
- skilled movements involve intricate coordination and guidance by multiple systems, including joints, muscles, eyes, and the vestibular system (i.e., our sense of balance)

75
Q

At the same time, _helps to adjust and optimize these actions, making the learning process _

A

sensory feedback
- dynamic and responsive to environmental changes
- ex. coordination of movements requires learning how to dribble a basketball

76
Q

how can the visual system help make the learning process dynamic and responses to environmental changes?

A
  • The visual system must first locate the target; the frontal lobe will require considerable practice to eventually learn how to appropriately reach and hold the ball and coordinate various limb movements connected with the spinal cord that will carry information to the hands and legs
77
Q

how can the cerebellum help make the learning process dynamic and responsive to environmental changes?

A
  • The cerebellum will help with balance, whereas the basal ganglia will judge grasp and eventually assist with forming habits so that identical sequences are initiated for successful movement
  • Integration of sensory input and motor output is fundamental to engaging in complex motor tasks.
78
Q

describe relational learning

A

establishes neuronal connections in systems that include memories that can be verbally expressed, such as memory for events in a person’s past (i.e., declarative memory) and memory whose formation does not depend on the hippocampal formation; a collective term for perceptual, stimulus-response, and motor memory (i.e., non-declarative memory)

79
Q

Hebb’s rule, formulated by psychologist Donald Hebb in 1949, is often summarized as _. This principle explains how _

A

“cells that fire together, wire together.”
- This principle explains how synaptic plasticity—changes in the strength of synapses—underlies learning and memory

80
Q

describe Hebbian learning

A
  • after Dr. Donald Hebb, proposes how learning takes place in the brain using a single principle: ‘When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite a cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A’s efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased’
81
Q

we can extend the Hebb rule to instrumental learning, which also involves _

A

the activity of neurons in both the perceptual and motor systems
- The one added consideration is that organisms are more likely to engage in certain behaviours if there is a pleasurable component to them

82
Q

In instrumental learning, a reinforcement system should perform two essential functions:

A

First, the system should be capable of detecting a reinforcing stimulus
- The system must identify specific environmental stimuli that can influence behaviour in connection with rewards or punishments
- Second, the neuronal makeup of the reinforcement system must be able to strengthen the connections between the neurons that detect the reinforcing stimulus and the neurons that produce the instrumental response

83
Q

what happens to neural pathways in instrumental learning

A

neural pathways that connect sensory input with motor output are repeatedly activated, making it more likely that the desired behaviour will occur in the presence of the reinforcing stimulus

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