Lecture 9: psychology of planning

Question 1

What are the four components of a problem structure?

Answer 1

1. Initial State: How the problem is presented.
2. Goal State: The desired outcome.
3. Operators: Actions to move toward the goal.
4. Constraints: Limitations or rules on actions.

Question 2

What factors define the task environment?

Answer 2

• Presentation format (e.g., visual/textual).
• Thematic content (e.g., familiarity).
• Conditions (e.g., criticality or risk).

Question 3

What is a state space?

Answer 3

All possible paths between the initial and goal states; larger state spaces make problems more complex.

Question 3

How do working and long-term memory affect planning?

Answer 3

• Working Memory: Limits planning efficiency due to capacity constraints.
• Long-Term Memory: Stores solutions, operators, and constraints, aiding expertise.

Question 4

What are some common heuristics in problem-solving?

Answer 4

• Means-Ends Analysis.
• Hill-Climbing.
• Trial and Error.
• Anchoring.
• Representativeness.

Question 5

What are the three styles of planning?

Answer 5

• Breadth-First: Exploring multiple options before committing.
• Depth-First: Focusing deeply on one option at a time.
• Opportunistic: Adapting based on the current situation.

Question 6

What does problem decomposition involve?

Answer 6

Breaking complex problems into smaller, manageable parts (e.g., fixing a car tire step-by-step).

Question 7

What are the consequences of failing to plan?

Answer 7

• Inefficient resource use.
• Poor outcomes due to lack of foresight.

Question 8

What did Ormerod et al. (2013) find about planning failures?

Answer 8

Failure to plan leads to suboptimal strategies and reduced problem-solving efficiency, demonstrated in the n-ball problem.

Question 9

What is Prospect Theory, and who developed it?

Answer 9

Developed by Tversky & Kahneman (1979), it explains decision-making through two processes:
1. Editing: Simplifying choices.
2. Evaluation: Assessing outcomes based on perceived value.

Question 10

What is the bias associated with Prospect Theory?

Answer 10

Loss Aversion: Preferring certainty even at the cost of lower utility.

Question 11

How is planning applied in essay writing?

Answer 11

• Macro-Structure: Organizing the overall flow.
• Micro-Structure: Detailed argumentation and evidence organization.

Question 12

Theoretical Frameworks

What is the General Problem Solver (GPS), and who developed it?

Answer 12

Developed by Newell & Simon (1972), it is a cognitive model simulating human problem-solving.

Question 13

What key concepts did Newell & Simon (1972) introduce?

Answer 13

• Bounded Rationality: Limited ability to process information.
• Satisficing: Accepting “good enough” solutions.

Question 14

How did Simon (1981) describe human design and planning?

Answer 14

As creative and constrained by domain, brief, and market requirements, requiring a balance between depth, breadth, and opportunism.

Question 15

How does Mendeleev’s periodic system demonstrate problem decomposition?

Answer 15

Breaking the problem into manageable parts using operators like placing cards to maximize progress.

Question 16

What does the Towers of Hanoi problem illustrate?

Answer 16

The challenges of navigating large state spaces and applying bounded rationality.

Question 17

What did Ball & Ormerod (1995) study in problem-solving?

Answer 17

Structured and opportunistic processes in design tasks.

Question 18

What is Zhang & Norman’s (1994) contribution to task environments?

Answer 18

Studied how representations (e.g., waitress and coffee cups) influence cognitive tasks.

Question 19

What are some findings by Ormerod et al. (2013)?

Answer 19

Planning failures lead to inefficient problem-solving, demonstrated in the n-ball problem

Question 20

What key contribution did Tversky & Kahneman (1979) make to decision-making?

Answer 20

Developed Prospect Theory, introducing editing, evaluation, and loss aversion.