Lecture 22: Language and Language Processing II

Question 1

What is psycholinguistics?

Answer 1

The study of the representations, mechanisms, and processes underlying language acquisition and use.
Focuses on comprehension (listening, reading) and production (speaking, writing).

Question 2

What distinction did Chomsky make in psycholinguistics?

Answer 2

• Competence: Knowledge of linguistic structures.
• Performance: Real-world use of language, including errors.

Question 3

What are the three stages of language processing?

Answer 3

1. Words.
2. Structure (syntax and parsing).
3. Meaning.

Question 4

1. Words

What is the mental lexicon?

Answer 4

• A mental “dictionary” of word knowledge.
• Questions include whether bilingual lexicons are separate or shared and if comprehension and production use the same lexicon.

Question 5

1. Words

What is the segmentation problem in spoken language?

Answer 5

There are no clear breaks between words in speech, requiring listeners to rely on context and meaning.

Question 6

1. Words

What are key processing models for words?

Answer 6

• Interactive Activation Model (McClelland & Rumelhart, 1981): Detectors for written letters and words activate rapidly with facilitation and inhibition.
• TRACE Model (McClelland & Elman, 1986): Similar processes for spoken word recognition.

Question 7

2 Structure

What is parsing in sentence processing?

Answer 7

• Using rules to assign structure to sentences.

Example: A sentence has noun and verb phrases (e.g., “The chair fell over”).

Question 8

2 Structure

What is sentence ambiguity?

Answer 8

Some sentences allow multiple interpretations (e.g., “The cop saw the man with the telescope”).

Question 9

2 Structure

What are the two main theories of sentence processing?

Answer 9

• Garden Path Theory (Frazier):
  Listeners initially choose the simplest structure, revising if wrong.
• Constraint-Based Theories (MacDonald, Seidenberg, McClelland):
  Multiple structures are considered in parallel, eliminating incompatible ones as the sentence unfolds.

Question 10

2 Structure

What evidence supports constraint-based theories?

Answer 10

• Altmann et al. (1992): Referential context helped readers choose the correct structure without slowing down.

Methodology: Eye-tracking during reading.

Question 11

3 Meaning

How are inferences made during language comprehension?

Answer 11

Inferences connect sentences using pronouns and connectives (e.g., “because,” “and so”).

Question 12

3 Meaning

How do connectives influence implicit causality?

Answer 12

• “John charmed Bill because he had an engaging manner” focuses on John (cause).
• “John charmed Bill and so he wanted a repeat” focuses on Bill (consequence).

Study: Garnham, Child, & Hutton (2020).
Methodology: Visual world experiments tracked gaze during sentence comprehension.

Question 13

How do comprehension and production differ in processing order?

Answer 13

• Comprehension: Words → Structure → Meaning.
• Production: Meaning → Structure → Words.

Question 14

How does reading differ from listening in flexibility?

Answer 14

Reading allows control over processing order, while listening generally follows sentence order.

Question 15

What is alignment in dialogue?

Answer 15

• Speakers unconsciously align linguistic output, including pronunciation, speech rate, and expressions.

Study: Wilkes-Gibbs & Clark (1992).
Methodology: Tangram naming tasks showed shared expressions developed in collaborative dialogue.

Question 16

What is audience design, and what challenges does it face?

Answer 16

• Tailoring language to the listener’s needs.
• Challenges: Communication often remains egocentric due to rapid interaction demands.

Study: Keysar et al. (1998).

Question 17

What are the key differences between competence and performance?

Answer 17

• Competence: Theoretical linguistic knowledge.
• Performance: Practical application, including errors.

Question 18

How does the garden path theory explain sentence processing?

Answer 18

Listeners choose the simplest sentence structure first, revising if needed.

Question 19

How do constraint-based theories differ from the garden path theory?

Answer 19

They consider multiple structures simultaneously, narrowing options as the sentence progresses.

Question 20

Why is dialogue a dynamic interplay of comprehension and production?

Answer 20

Speakers align and adapt based on the interaction, balancing flexibility and egocentric tendencies.