Lecture 13: Vision - Capturing the moment

Question 1

What is episodic memory?

Answer 1

Episodic memory involves reliving specific events, including context (time, place, emotions). It relies on the hippocampus for binding details and context.

• Example: Sailing on “Irene” and pulling ropes.

Question 2

What is semantic memory?

Answer 2

Semantic memory involves context-independent facts.
* Example: Knowing “Irene” is a two-mast boat.

Question 3

Brain Regions

What is the role of the hippocampus in episodic memory?

Answer 3

It binds details with context and is critical for forming associations.
* Evidence: Patient HM demonstrated impaired episodic memory after hippocampal damage.

Question 4

What are the roles of the prefrontal cortex (PFC)?

Answer 4

• Ventrolateral PFC (VLPFC): Supports semantic processing and encoding.
• Dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC): Supports organization and elaboration during encoding.

Question 5

How does attention influence memory encoding?

Answer 5

Focused attention boosts hippocampal activation, enhancing encoding. Divided attention markedly impairs memory.
* Study: Craik et al. (1996) showed impaired recall under divided attention conditions.
* Methodology: Behavioral experiments comparing recall under focused vs. divided attention.

Question 6

How did Uncapher & Rugg (2009) study attention and memory?

Answer 6

Found that attention modulates hippocampal activity during encoding, with better memory for attended features.
* Methodology: fMRI study with encoding and retrieval tasks using attended vs. unattended features.

Question 7

What is the picture superiority effect?

Answer 7

Pictures are more memorable than words due to richer memory traces combining visual and verbal codes.

• Theory: Paivio’s (1971) Dual Code Theory.

Question 8

How did Paivio (1971) demonstrate the picture superiority effect?

Answer 8

Compared recall of images and words to show that images create dual (visual + verbal) memory codes.

• Methodology: Experimental tasks measuring recall of images vs. words.

Question 9

What is the Von Restorff effect?

Answer 9

Unique items in a list are more memorable due to their distinctiveness.

• Study: Von Restorff (1933).
• Methodology: Behavioral studies using lists with one unique item.

Question 10

How did Ensor et al. (2019) extend distinctiveness theory?

Answer 10

Showed that colorful and complex visualizations enhance memorability.
* Methodology: Experimental manipulation of visual elements like fonts and colors.

Question 11

How does processing distinctiveness affect memory?

Answer 11

Judging unique features enhances hippocampal activation.

• Study: Carr, Engel, & Knowlton (2013).
• Methodology: fMRI study comparing distinctiveness vs. similarity judgments during encoding.

Question 12

How do schemas influence memory encoding?

Answer 12

Information linked to prior knowledge (schemas) is better encoded, activating the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC).

• Study: van Kesteren et al. (2014) found that schema-related information enhanced recall.
• Methodology: fMRI study comparing schema-related and unrelated facts in university students.

Question 13

What brain regions are involved in schema-related encoding?

Answer 13

Schema-related encoding shifts activation from the hippocampus (medial temporal lobe) to the mPFC.

Question 14

What is deep processing?

Answer 14

Processing information semantically (for meaning) improves memory encoding.

• Theory: Craik & Lockhart (1972).

Question 15

How does elaboration improve encoding?

Answer 15

Relating new material to prior knowledge and creating meaningful mental imagery enhances encoding.

Question 16

How does organizing information affect encoding?

Answer 16

Organizing material by categories improves recall and activates the DLPFC.

• Study: Long et al. (2010) demonstrated category-based recall enhancement.
• Methodology: Behavioral study linking recall to category organization.

Question 17

How does the DLPFC contribute to encoding?

Answer 17

Supports organizing and elaborating on material, predicting better recall.

Question 18

What are effective strategies for enhancing encoding?

Answer 18

• Paying attention.
• Processing for distinctiveness.
• Relating to prior knowledge (schemas).
• Deep semantic processing.
• Organizing information.

Question 19

How does active processing influence the hippocampus?

Answer 19

Boosts hippocampal activation, improving memory formation.

Question 20

What did Craik et al. (1996) show about attention and memory?

Answer 20

Divided attention during encoding significantly impairs recall.

• Methodology: Behavioral experiments comparing focused vs. divided attention.

Question 21

How did Uncapher & Rugg (2009) study hippocampal activation?

Answer 21

Found better memory for attended features due to enhanced hippocampal activity.

• Methodology: fMRI study with attended vs. unattended feature encoding.

Question 22

What did Paivio (1971) demonstrate about images and memory?

Answer 22

Images are better remembered due to dual memory coding (visual + verbal).

• Methodology: Experimental tasks comparing recall of images vs. words.

Question 23

How did von Restorff (1933) study distinctiveness in memory?

Answer 23

Found unique items in a list are more memorable.

• Methodology: Behavioral experiments with mixed-item lists.

Question 24

How did Ensor et al. (2019) enhance memory using visuals?

Answer 24

Found colorful and complex visualizations boost memorability.

• Methodology: Experimental manipulation of visual distinctiveness.

Question 25

What did van Kesteren et al. (2014) find about schemas and memory?

Answer 25

Schema-related material activated the mPFC and improved recall.

• Methodology: fMRI study comparing schema-related vs. unrelated facts.

Question 26

How did Carr, Engel, & Knowlton (2013) study distinctiveness processing?

Answer 26

Judging distinct features enhanced hippocampal activation.

• Methodology: fMRI study comparing distinctiveness vs. similarity judgments.

Question 27

What did Long et al. (2010) find about organizing material?

Answer 27

Organizing material by categories enhances recall.

• Methodology: Behavioral study linking organization to recall.

Question 28

How do attention and distinctiveness influence memory encoding?

Answer 28

• Attention enhances hippocampal activation.
• Distinctive features increase memorability.

Question 29

What is the role of schemas in memory?

Answer 29

Schemas improve encoding by linking new material to prior knowledge.

Question 30

What brain regions support encoding?

Answer 30

• Hippocampus: Binds details with context.
• VLPFC: Semantic encoding.
• DLPFC: Organizing information.