Lecture 14: Memory: Using it not Losing it

Question 1

What is contextual reinstatement in memory retrieval?

Answer 1

Reinstating part of a memory (e.g., context or details) can trigger recall of the rest.

Question 2

How did Smith & Manzano (2010) study contextual reinstatement?

Answer 2

Participants watched videos and were tested with or without visual scene cues.
* Methodology: Free recall tasks showed enhanced memory when scene cues were reinstated.

Question 3

What is the Encoding Specificity Principle?

Answer 3

Retrieval is better when cognitive processes at encoding match those during retrieval.

Question 4

How did Godden & Baddeley (1975) demonstrate encoding specificity?

Answer 4

Participants studied and recalled words on land or underwater. Recall improved when environments matched.
* Methodology: Experimental manipulation of study and test environments.

Question 5

How did Morris et al. (1977) explore encoding specificity?

Answer 5

Words encoded semantically were better recalled with semantic cues, while rhyme-encoded words were better recalled with rhyming cues.
* Methodology: Comparisons of semantic vs. rhyme-based encoding tasks.

Question 6

What is the content-addressable memory model?

Answer 6

Memories are retrieved based on their content, not location (e.g., “birthday cake” triggers related memories).

Question 7

What is the global matching model?

Answer 7

Retrieval reflects the match between cues and all stored memory traces.Clark & Gronlund (1996).

Question 8

What is the complementary learning systems model?

Answer 8

Memory representations in the cortex are matched with partial cues, triggering pattern completion by the hippocampus.
McClelland et al. (1995).
* Methodology: Neurocomputational modeling.

Question 9

How did Polyn et al. (2005) study episodic reinstatement?

Answer 9

Neural activity during recall matched activity during encoding, detected using machine learning on fMRI data.
* Methodology: fMRI with machine learning algorithms to identify patterns during recall.

Question 10

What mechanisms explain the testing effect?

Answer 10

• Semantic Elaboration: Testing forms additional associations around studied material (e.g., “MOTHER” triggers related concepts like “CHILD”). Carpenter (2009).
• Episodic Context Updating: Testing integrates old and new contexts into memory, creating more cues.
  Karpicke et al. (2014).

Question 11

What is the testing effect?

Answer 11

Testing improves memory retention more effectively than re-studying.

Question 12

How did Roediger & Karpicke (2006) demonstrate the testing effect?

Answer 12

Tested memory for prose passages over one week in three conditions: study-only (SSSS), study + test (SSST), and repeated tests (STTT).
* Methodology: Controlled study-testing experiments showed STTT resulted in the least forgetting (10%) compared to SSSS (52%).

Question 13

How did Carpenter (2009) study semantic elaboration?

Answer 13

Testing enhanced memory through associative cues.
* Methodology: Recall tasks where test cues enriched memory connections.

Question 14

How did Sekeres et al. (2016) study the impact of testing on forgetting?

Answer 14

Participants repeatedly recalled central and peripheral details of video clips over seven days.
* Methodology: Memory tests showed repeated testing reduced forgetting, especially for peripheral details.

Question 15

What are some practical applications of the testing effect?

Answer 15

• Enhancing learning in educational settings.
• Improving eyewitness testimony recall using cognitive interviews.
• Developing mnemonic strategies with self-generated cues.

Question 16

What did Rowland (2014) find in a meta-analysis of testing effects?

Answer 16

Testing effects are robust across settings and populations (e.g., students, older adults) and support transferring learning to new materials.

• Methodology: Meta-analysis of studies on testing effects.

Question 17

How do cues influence memory retrieval?

Answer 17

Cues that overlap with stored memory content improve retrieval by providing diagnostic information.

Question 18

How does matching study and test environments affect memory?

Answer 18

Contextual matching enhances recall, as shown by the encoding specificity principle.

Question 19

What strategies improve memory retention?

Answer 19

• Testing as a study strategy.
• Generating meaningful retrieval cues.
• Practicing mental reinstatement of learned material.

Question 20

What did Smith & Manzano (2010) show about visual cues and memory?

Answer 20

Scene reinstatement enhanced recall when fewer words were studied per context.

• Methodology: Free recall tasks with visual scene cues.

Question 21

How did Godden & Baddeley (1975) link environment to memory?

Answer 21

Participants recalled words better when encoding and test environments (land or underwater) matched.

• Methodology: Experimental manipulation of environments.

Question 22

How did Morris et al. (1977) study encoding and retrieval?

Answer 22

Semantic vs. rhyme-based encoding tasks showed retrieval depends on cue compatibility.
* Methodology: Encoding task comparisons with different cue types.

Question 23

How did Polyn et al. (2005) investigate neural reinstatement?

Answer 23

Detected neural activity during recall that matched encoding patterns.

• Methodology: fMRI with machine learning analysis.

Question 24

What did Roediger & Karpicke (2006) conclude about testing and memory?

Answer 24

Repeated testing (STTT) reduces forgetting significantly compared to study-only methods (SSSS).

• Methodology: Study-testing experiments

Question 25

How did Carpenter (2009) link testing to memory associations?

Answer 25

Testing enriched retrieval cues through semantic elaboration.

• Methodology: Recall tasks with associative cue manipulations.

Question 26

What was Sekeres et al.’s (2016) finding on forgetting?

Answer 26

Repeated testing reduced forgetting of peripheral details from videos.

• Methodology: Recall tests for central vs. peripheral details over time.

Question 27

What did Rowland (2014) find in a meta-analysis?

Answer 27

Testing effects are consistent across various contexts and populations.

• Methodology: Meta-analysis of testing effect studies.

Question 28

What is the role of cues in memory retrieval?

Answer 28

Effective cues overlap stored content, providing diagnostic information to improve recall.

Question 29

How does episodic reinstatement support recall?

Answer 29

Neural activity during recall mirrors encoding patterns, enabling a re-experiencing of events.

Question 30

Why is testing a superior memory strategy?

Answer 30

Testing creates richer associations, integrates contexts, and strengthens retrieval pathways.