Lecture 7 Stress Flashcards
What is Stress?
Stress is a negative emotional experience accompanied by predictable biochemical, physiological, cognitive, and behavioural changes that are directed either toward altering the stressful event or accommodating to its effects (Baum, 1990).
Definition of Stressor
chemical or biological agent environmental condition, external stimulus or event that causes stress to an organism (Sato et al., 2006)
Types of Stressors
physical
psychological
acute
chronic
explain physical stressors
all animals (human and not): e.g., heat, cold, pain, fatigue, injury, hunger, predators.
explain psychological stressors
generally only humans: e.g., grades, job security, money, relationships, traffic, noise, crowding, commuting to work
explain acute stressors
demand immediate attention
But do not last long
appear suddenly
many physical stressors are acute
explain chronic stressors
do not require immediate attention
but last a long time and are constant source of worry
most psychological stressors are chronic
Hassles are minor life events that …
Have cumulative effect Reduce psychological well-being over short term Produce physical symptoms in long term Examples: Being stuck in traffic Waiting in line Doing household chores Having difficulty making a small decision
who was the discoverer of the “Stress Syndrome”
Hans Selye
explain General Adaptation Syndrome that Selye researched
Exposed rats to stressors; observed physiological responses
Found: all stressors, regardless of type, produced physiological responses:
Enlarged adrenal cortex
Adrenocortical response to stress (involves cortex)
Shrunken thymus and lymph nodes
Ulceration of the stomach and duodenum
Resembles: Activation of HPA axis
what does General Adaptation Syndrome most closely resemble
Activation of HPA axis
explain the General Adaptation Syndrome
non-specific response of the body to demand
Three stages:
what are the 3 stages of the General Adaptation syndrome
Alarm: organism becomes mobilized to meet demand
Resistance: organism makes efforts to cope
Exhaustion: organism fails to cope; depletes its physiological resources
what does Allostatic Load refer to
to fact that physiological systems within the body fluctuate to meet demands from stress called allostasis
EXPLAIN Allostatic Load
Based on Selye’s ideas
Process of achieving stability, or homeostasis, through physiological or behavioral change
Over time, allostatic load builds up
physiological costs of chronic exposure to fluctuating or heightened neural or neuroendocrine responses
what are the Allostatic Load Measurement/biomarkers
Decreases in cell-mediated immunity Inability to shut off cortisol in response to stress Lowered heart rate variability Elevated epinephrine levels High waist-to-hip ratio Decreased hippocampal volume Problems with memory High plasma fibrinogen Elevated blood pressure
what are the General Adaptation Syndrome criticisms
According to its critics, Selye’s model:
Does not consider psychological appraisal of stress (he tested rats!)
Assumes that responses to stress are uniform, but:
Not all stressors produce same endocrinological responses
How people respond influenced by personality, perception, biological constitution
explain stress appraisal Richard Lazarus & Susan Folkman
What matters is not what event occurs, but how we perceive and interpret that event.
appraisal
what are the steps to the The Stress Appraisal Process
primary appraisal secondary appraisal stress coping repraisal
explain primary appraisal from The Stress Appraisal Process
evaluate: Is it Positive, negative, or neutral? If negative, is it: Harmful, threatening or challenging?
explain secondary appraisal from The Stress Appraisal Process
evaluate if you have Sufficient coping abilities and resources?
what is Holmes & Rahe: Stressful Life Events (SLE)
tries to list what stressful events one will go through in their lifetime
what are the criticism on the stressful life events
Fails to consider individual differences in experience and reporting of events
(Primary appraisal)
Does not assess whether resolved or not
(Secondary appraisal)
Does not include ongoing life strain (chronic stress)
what are Contextual Threat Interviews
Semi-structured clinical interviews
Major life events and chronic stressors by domain (8)
E.g. school/work,peers, romantic, family,health, body image, money
Blind team assessment of OBJECTIVE impact for the average person in the same context
what are the advantages of Contextual Threat Interviews
Reduce subjective biases
Assess objective impact
Culturally sensitive by-default
what are the disadvantages of Contextual Threat Interviews
Labour intensive, training & administering
Expensive & long
explain Shelley Taylor et al. (2000): Tend-and-Befriend
Proposition: males and females have different stress responses; each adaptive for that sex
explain the male response to stress according to tend-and-befriend
Males: fight-or-flight, activated by testosterone
explain the female response to stress according to tend-and-befriend
Females: tend-and-befriend, activated by oxytocin
Tending: Nurturing activities, to protect offspring
Befriending: Seeking social support
befriend component brings social behaviour into stress processes
what are the Tend-and-Befriend Evolutionary Arguments
male and female stress responses were adaptive for their gender roles at the time:
Men responsible for hunting and protection
Women responsible for foraging and child care
Women’s responses to stress (tend-and-befriend) evolved to protect not only themselves, but their offspring as well
what are the Tend-and-Befriend Criticisms
Misogynistic, reflects societal sexism
Ignores cultural factors that contribute to gender differences
Men also tend and befriend, women also fight and flee
Determining factor: situation
Reductionistic – reducing reaction to biological mechanism (oxytocin)
Reinforces gender stereotypes
What are predictors of stress?
Increase likelihood of stress happening
Called: Vulnerabilities
What are moderators of stress:
Increase or decrease strength of relationship between stressful conditions and outcomes, e.g., getting sick
explain Vulnerability Factors of stress
Cognitive: self-esteem, locus-of-control, perceived self-competency
Interpersonal: dependency, attachment style, reassurance seeking
Personality: perfectionism, self-criticism, neuroticism
Perfectionism associated with:
high stress
the practice of fewer wellness-promoting behaviours
an increase in the risk of mortality among older adults
Two of the most important factors that moderate the strength of the relationship between stress and negative outcomes are what
Coping
Social Support
Moderators of the stress experience may have an impact on:
Stress itself
The relationship between stress and illness
The relationship between stress and psychological responses
How much a stressful experience affects other aspects of a person’s life
define coping
Thoughts and behaviours used to manage the external and internal demands of a stressor
the Coping definition is: good why
Dynamic:
Focuses on ongoing set of responses by which person and environment are involved in reciprocal interaction
Objective:
Includes resources that individual has available to face the situation
Subjective:
Includes beliefs that individual has in their own ability to cope
what are Coping Styles
General way person tends to cope with stressors
E.g.: Approach- vs. avoidance-oriented
Approaching: confrontative, vigilant
Avoidance: minimizing, e.g. through distraction
what are the two main coping styles
Approach- vs. avoidance-oriented
Benefits and Costs of
Approach coping:
may lead to short-term anxiety
but good coping with long-term stressors
works when specific actions can reduce stressor
benefits and costs of Avoidant coping
benefit when stress is overwhelming (reduces intense emotions)
but does not reduce demands of stressor
what are some Coping Strategies
Problem-focused coping
Emotion-focused coping
what is Problem-focused coping
Doing something constructive about negative events to reduce demands
Good when demands of situation relatively manageable
what is Emotion-focused coping
Attempting to regulate emotions
Helpful when low control over stressor or low available resources
Factor Influencing Coping:
Optimism vs. Pessimism
explain Optimism
More problem-focused coping, seeking social support, emphasizing positive aspects of stressful situation
explain Pessimism
Denial and distancing from event, focusing on stressful feelings
pessimistic explanatory style: interpreting negative events in terms of internal, stable, and global factors
Reduced capacity to cope with stress
what are the different forms of Social Support: Buffer of Stress
Instrumental support
Informational support
Emotional support
define Instrumental support
Involves the provision of material support
define Informational support
The provision of information to a person going through stress by friends, family, and other people in the individual’s social network
define Emotional support
The assurance that one is a valuable individual who is cared for
is there a link between Social Support and Optimism
Brissette, Scheier, and Carver (2002)
University students who were optimists coped more effectively with the transition to university
Why?
They were more likely to use seeking social support as a coping strategy
what is the link between the Social Support and HPA axis
Supportive companion present during a stressful situation
Subdued HPA axis response
Thought to be due to release of oxytocin
Effects of Stress on Immune Function
lower immune functioning an this leads to chronic diseases
what appears to increase immune function during stress
regular exercise
explain Coping with Stress: Stress Inoculation Training
Identify what events cause stress
Teaching variety of techniques to deal with these events
Trying techniques to identify what works best
