Lecture 5: Cognitive Development 2

Question 1

habituation

Answer 1

children stop responding to a stimulus when they are already familiar with it and are bored by it

Question 2

searching for objects

Answer 2

A-not-B tasks

Question 3

imitation

Answer 3

researchers can map the memory of young children by looking at whether or not they can imitate actions from an example
- children from the age of 6 months show delayed imitation

Question 4

why is it that the older a child gets, the faster the child learns and the longer the child remembers the information

Answer 4

• changes in basic capabilities
• changes in memory strategies
• improved knowledge of memory
• improved knowledge of the world

Question 5

changes in basic capabilities

Answer 5

older children have better ‘hardware’
- neural connections provide better working memory
- better encoding/interpretation of information
- mental processes involved in working memory work better through myelination

Question 6

changes in memory strategies

Answer 6

older children have better ‘software’
- effective methods for storing and retrieving infromation
- have learned to use effective ways to place information in long-term memory

Question 7

perseverance mistakes

Answer 7

young children use the same strategy for everyting, if it has ever been successful

Question 8

repetition

Answer 8

used by children aged 7-10+ to remember something

Question 9

organization

Answer 9

clustering items into groups so they fit together in order to remember easier

Question 10

division

Answer 10

dividing things into smaller sections in order to remember them (e.g. phone number)

Question 11

mediation deficit

Answer 11

children cannot spontaneously use a memory strategy
- they cannot understand the concept of a strategy

Question 12

production deficit

Answer 12

when children use strategies that they have learned but are unable to spontaneously come up with their own strategies

Question 13

use deficit

Answer 13

children use the strategy adequately, but this does not yet lead to better outcomes in the task

Question 14

improved knoweldge of memory

Answer 14

older children know more about memory

Question 15

meta-memory

Answer 15

refers to knowledge about memory and how to monitor and regulate memory processes
- you know what you are not good at and what you can do better

Question 16

metacognition

Answer 16

refers to knowledge about the human mind and cognitive processes
- you understand that you are better at languages than at maths and that you cannot study when there is background noise

Question 17

improved knowledge of the world

Answer 17

older children know more about the world in general
- the new knowledge they acquire is more familiar, which makes it easier to remember

Question 18

knowledge base

Answer 18

the knowledge about a specific item to be learned, which influences learning and memory

Question 19

autobiographical memories

Answer 19

memories of personal experiences or events
- necessary for future experiences and understanding of who we are

Question 20

childhood amnesia

Answer 20

being unable to recall memories from infancy or very early childhood

Question 21

what causes childhood amnesia

Answer 21

• working memory space
• lack of language
• degree of sociocultural support
• sense of self
• word vs essence storage
• neurogenesis

Question 22

working memory space

Answer 22

babies and young children may not have enough working memory space to remember multiple memories
- not sufficient explanation as toddlers and preschoolers can remember events

Question 23

lack of language

Answer 23

autobiographical memory is based on language skills, which may reduce the amount of memories stored

Question 24

degree of sociocultural support

Answer 24

there are large differences in child-parent talk about past events
- when children often talk about memories with their parents, their autobiographical memory is better in later life
- may be due to repetition

Question 25

sense of self

Answer 25

babies and toddlers do not yet have a strong sense of the ‘self’, which makes it difficult to form personal memories

Question 26

word vs essence storage

Answer 26

researchers have tried to explain childhood amnesia in terms of the vague trace theory
- children store verbal and general parts of a memory differently
- verbal information is unstable and likely to be forgotten over time
- it is easier to remember the gist of an event rather than the details

Question 27

neurogenesis

Answer 27

the birth of new cells can ‘refresh’ our memory
- new cells and new memories can replace old cells and old memories

Question 28

scripts and general representations

Answer 28

when children perform daily routines, scripts and general representations are created to demonstrate how to perform a certain routine
- when asked about a memory, they describe the script rather than the event

Question 29

adolescent memory

Answer 29

adolescents make better use of strategies, process information faster, and improved meta-memory and metacognition

Question 30

adult memory

Answer 30

adults function best cognitively when they have expertise in that field

Question 31

what factors influence autobiographical memory

Answer 31

• personal significance
• distinctive or unique
• affect or emotional intensity
• life stage

Question 32

personal significance

Answer 32

researchers thought that when an event is of greater importance, you remember it better
- however, research shows that this is not true, over time the event may become less important

Question 33

distinctive or unique

Answer 33

the more unique an event is, the better you remember it
- an everyday event is not remembered in detail, but rather made into a general memory

Question 34

affect or emotional intensity

Answer 34

events that are associated with a strong positive or negative emotion are better remembered than events with neutral emotions

Question 35

life stage

Answer 35

people remember more information about their teens and twenties than other ages
- this ‘memory bump’ may be because memories from adolescence are more accesible because they are unique (leaving home, school, romantic relationship, starting a family)

Question 36

memory as we age

Answer 36

older adults have more difficulty in retrieving memories
- have information stored but cannot retrieve it without the help of hints

Question 37

executive functions

Answer 37

all functions of the frontal lobe (prefrontal cortex) related to self-control
- higher-level cognitive functions
- examples: rehearsal, inhibition, planning, mental flexibility, working memory, short-term memory

Question 38

long-term memory
- explicity (declarative)

Answer 38

medial temporal lobe, diencephalon
- semantic memory (facts)
- episodic memory (events)

Question 39

long-term memory
- implicit (non-declarative)

Answer 39

• procedural (skills and procedures) -> striatum
• priming and perceptual learning -> neocortex
• simple classical conditioning -> amygdala, cerebellum
• non-associative learning -> reflex pathways

Question 40

procedural memory

Answer 40

automatic/unconscious memory (often motor memory)
- implicit memory develops earlier in childhood than explicit memory

Question 41

semantic memory

Answer 41

knowledge of facts, concepts, word meanings
- growth during childhood is a function of information exposure
- semantic memory is maintained over time
- persist for a long time, however older adults have difficulty with retrieving knowledge

Question 42

episodic memory

Answer 42

remembering events/details from the past
- development of episodic memory starts with the development of the hippocampus during the first 6 months
- remains fairly stable, however as a person ages it declines steadily

Question 43

cognitive functioning in old age

Answer 43

there is higher functioning if routines and habits are used, there are supporting external cues, there is access to previous knowledge, and there is clear structure
- problems can arise when there are new situations, time pressure, or when someone is tired or distracted

Question 44

possibility to minimize or delay decline in middle age by protective means

Answer 44

adaptive lifestyle, modifiable psychosocial and behavioral factors and interventions can reduce the risk of deterioration and disease

Question 45

risk factors

Answer 45

smoking, poor diet, obesity, loneliness

Question 46

protective factors

Answer 46

engaged lifestyle, exercise, social support, positive beliefs, sense of control

Question 47

telomeres

Answer 47

biological markers of cellular ageing and shorten as individual ages
- combination of adaptive behavioral factors can influence the biological course of aging