Lecture 5: Cognitive Development 2 Flashcards
habituation
children stop responding to a stimulus when they are already familiar with it and are bored by it
searching for objects
A-not-B tasks
imitation
researchers can map the memory of young children by looking at whether or not they can imitate actions from an example
- children from the age of 6 months show delayed imitation
why is it that the older a child gets, the faster the child learns and the longer the child remembers the information
- changes in basic capabilities
- changes in memory strategies
- improved knowledge of memory
- improved knowledge of the world
changes in basic capabilities
older children have better ‘hardware’
- neural connections provide better working memory
- better encoding/interpretation of information
- mental processes involved in working memory work better through myelination
changes in memory strategies
older children have better ‘software’
- effective methods for storing and retrieving infromation
- have learned to use effective ways to place information in long-term memory
perseverance mistakes
young children use the same strategy for everyting, if it has ever been successful
repetition
used by children aged 7-10+ to remember something
organization
clustering items into groups so they fit together in order to remember easier
division
dividing things into smaller sections in order to remember them (e.g. phone number)
mediation deficit
children cannot spontaneously use a memory strategy
- they cannot understand the concept of a strategy
production deficit
when children use strategies that they have learned but are unable to spontaneously come up with their own strategies
use deficit
children use the strategy adequately, but this does not yet lead to better outcomes in the task
improved knoweldge of memory
older children know more about memory
meta-memory
refers to knowledge about memory and how to monitor and regulate memory processes
- you know what you are not good at and what you can do better
metacognition
refers to knowledge about the human mind and cognitive processes
- you understand that you are better at languages than at maths and that you cannot study when there is background noise
improved knowledge of the world
older children know more about the world in general
- the new knowledge they acquire is more familiar, which makes it easier to remember
knowledge base
the knowledge about a specific item to be learned, which influences learning and memory
autobiographical memories
memories of personal experiences or events
- necessary for future experiences and understanding of who we are
childhood amnesia
being unable to recall memories from infancy or very early childhood
what causes childhood amnesia
- working memory space
- lack of language
- degree of sociocultural support
- sense of self
- word vs essence storage
- neurogenesis
working memory space
babies and young children may not have enough working memory space to remember multiple memories
- not sufficient explanation as toddlers and preschoolers can remember events
lack of language
autobiographical memory is based on language skills, which may reduce the amount of memories stored
degree of sociocultural support
there are large differences in child-parent talk about past events
- when children often talk about memories with their parents, their autobiographical memory is better in later life
- may be due to repetition
sense of self
babies and toddlers do not yet have a strong sense of the ‘self’, which makes it difficult to form personal memories
word vs essence storage
researchers have tried to explain childhood amnesia in terms of the vague trace theory
- children store verbal and general parts of a memory differently
- verbal information is unstable and likely to be forgotten over time
- it is easier to remember the gist of an event rather than the details
neurogenesis
the birth of new cells can ‘refresh’ our memory
- new cells and new memories can replace old cells and old memories
scripts and general representations
when children perform daily routines, scripts and general representations are created to demonstrate how to perform a certain routine
- when asked about a memory, they describe the script rather than the event
adolescent memory
adolescents make better use of strategies, process information faster, and improved meta-memory and metacognition
adult memory
adults function best cognitively when they have expertise in that field
what factors influence autobiographical memory
- personal significance
- distinctive or unique
- affect or emotional intensity
- life stage
personal significance
researchers thought that when an event is of greater importance, you remember it better
- however, research shows that this is not true, over time the event may become less important
distinctive or unique
the more unique an event is, the better you remember it
- an everyday event is not remembered in detail, but rather made into a general memory
affect or emotional intensity
events that are associated with a strong positive or negative emotion are better remembered than events with neutral emotions
life stage
people remember more information about their teens and twenties than other ages
- this ‘memory bump’ may be because memories from adolescence are more accesible because they are unique (leaving home, school, romantic relationship, starting a family)
memory as we age
older adults have more difficulty in retrieving memories
- have information stored but cannot retrieve it without the help of hints
executive functions
all functions of the frontal lobe (prefrontal cortex) related to self-control
- higher-level cognitive functions
- examples: rehearsal, inhibition, planning, mental flexibility, working memory, short-term memory
long-term memory
- explicity (declarative)
medial temporal lobe, diencephalon
- semantic memory (facts)
- episodic memory (events)
long-term memory
- implicit (non-declarative)
- procedural (skills and procedures) -> striatum
- priming and perceptual learning -> neocortex
- simple classical conditioning -> amygdala, cerebellum
- non-associative learning -> reflex pathways
procedural memory
automatic/unconscious memory (often motor memory)
- implicit memory develops earlier in childhood than explicit memory
semantic memory
knowledge of facts, concepts, word meanings
- growth during childhood is a function of information exposure
- semantic memory is maintained over time
- persist for a long time, however older adults have difficulty with retrieving knowledge
episodic memory
remembering events/details from the past
- development of episodic memory starts with the development of the hippocampus during the first 6 months
- remains fairly stable, however as a person ages it declines steadily
cognitive functioning in old age
there is higher functioning if routines and habits are used, there are supporting external cues, there is access to previous knowledge, and there is clear structure
- problems can arise when there are new situations, time pressure, or when someone is tired or distracted
possibility to minimize or delay decline in middle age by protective means
adaptive lifestyle, modifiable psychosocial and behavioral factors and interventions can reduce the risk of deterioration and disease
risk factors
smoking, poor diet, obesity, loneliness
protective factors
engaged lifestyle, exercise, social support, positive beliefs, sense of control
telomeres
biological markers of cellular ageing and shorten as individual ages
- combination of adaptive behavioral factors can influence the biological course of aging
