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Developmental Psychology > Lecture 2: Theories of Developmental Psychology > Flashcards

Lecture 2: Theories of Developmental Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

psychoanalytic theory

A

focuses on the development and dynamics of the personality
- people are driven by motives and emotional conflicts of which they are largely unconscious
- developed by Sigmund Freud and rewritten by Erik Erikson

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2
Q

learning theory

A

developed by Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Bandura

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3
Q

cognitive development theory

A

one supporter is Piaget

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4
Q

systems theory

A

explained by Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological model

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5
Q

nature vs nurture

A

is development only the product of nature (biology) or also of the environment (nurture)

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6
Q

critical period

A

a specific time window in which an individual must experience a certain environmental stimulus in order to develop normally

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7
Q

imprinting

A

a phenomenon where some species of newborn animals rapidly form a strong attachment to their caregiver shortly after birth
- Lorenz and ducklings

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8
Q

sensitive period

A

a time period in which an individual is particularly able to acquire as well as develop new skills

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9
Q

activity vs passivity

A

the extent to which people are active in creating and influencing their own environment and their own development

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10
Q

continuity vs discontinuity

A

are the changes people undergo gradual or abrupt

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11
Q

universality vs context

A

the extent to which developmental changes are the same for all people (universal) or different in cultures, tasks and individuals (context specific)

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12
Q

psychosexual phases

A
  • oral phase
  • anal phase
  • phallic phase
  • latent phase
  • genital phase
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13
Q

oral phase

A
  • birth - 1 year
  • the libido is focused on the mouth as a source of pleasure
  • oral gratification from mother figure
  • fixation leads to thumb-sucking, chain-smoking, and over-dependence on others
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14
Q

anal phase

A
  • 1 year - 3 years
  • libido is focused on the anus
  • potty training creates a conflict between biological urges and the demands of society
  • fixation leads to fear and turning away from authorities
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15
Q

phallic phase

A
  • 3 years to 6 years
  • the libido is focused on the genitals
  • resolution of the Oepidus (in boys) or Electra complex (in girls) leads to identification with the same-sex parent and development of the superego
  • Oepidus and Electra complex is the lust for the parent of the opposite sex
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16
Q

latent phase

A
  • 6 years to 12 years
  • the libido remains quiet
  • child’s energy goes to school and playing with friends of the same sex
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17
Q

genital phase

A
  • 12 years and older
  • puberty awakens the sexual instincts, when young people want to enter into an adult sexual relationship and fulfill the biological goal of reproduction
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18
Q

repression

A

the removal of unacceptable or traumatic thoughts/memories from the conscious mind
- can result in having no memory at all of a traumatic event

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19
Q

regression

A

falling back to an earlier and less traumatic phase of development

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20
Q

Erik Erikson

A
  • like Freud, researched personality dynamics and also assumed developmental stages
  • however, placed less emphasis on sexual drives and more emphasis on social influences
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21
Q

psychosocial stages

A
  • trust vs distrust
  • autonomy vs shame and doubt
  • initiative vs regret
  • industry vs inferiority
  • identity vs role confusion
  • intimacy vs isolation
  • generativity vs stagnation
  • integrity vs despair
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22
Q

trust vs distrust

A
  • birth to 1 year
  • babies must learn to trust their carers to meet their needs
  • responsive parenting is necessary, if failing to do this, children will distrust others
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23
Q

autonomy vs shame and doubt

A
  • 1 year to 3 years
  • children must learn to be autonomous
  • must learn to know their own will and do things for themselves
  • when this fails, they will doubt their abilities
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24
Q

initiative vs regret

A
  • 3 years to 6 years
  • pre-school children develop initiative by thinking up and executing grand plans
  • have to learn not to let this clash with the rights of other people
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25
Q

industry vs inferiority

A
  • 6 years to 12 years
  • children need to acquire important social and academic skills and keep up with their peers
  • if this fails, they will feel inferior
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26
Q

identity vs role confusion

A
  • 12 years to 20 years
  • adolescents wonder who they are, and they need to acquire social and academic identities
  • otherwise they will remain confused about the role they should have as adults
  • Erikson sees adolescence as a period of identity crisis
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27
Q

intimacy vs isolation

A
  • 20 years to 40 years
  • young adults seek some form of shared identity with another person
  • may fear intimacy and be lonely and isolated
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28
Q

generativity vs stagnation

A
  • 40 years to 65 years
  • adults need to feel that they are doing something for society/next generation
  • otherwise they get stuck and become self-centered
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29
Q

integrity vs despair

A
  • 65+ years
  • older adults should see their lives as meaningful when faced with death
  • should not have worries and regrets
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30
Q

Watson’s behaviorism

A
  • based on the conviction that you should make conclusions about human development on the basis of behavioral observation and not on the basis of unconscious cognitive and emotional processes
  • thus rejected psychoanalytic theory
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31
Q

classical conditioning

A

a simple form of learning in which a stimulus has no effect on the individual until it is associated with something positive or negative
- Little Albert

32
Q

operant conditioning

A

the learned behavior comes from the consequences that the behavior has
- you associate the behavior you exhibit with the positive or negative consequences that result form your behavior

33
Q

extinction

A

when behavior becomes less frequent due to lack of reinforcement of behavior

34
Q

positive approach vs punishment

A

people learn better from positive approaches than from punishment, so using a positive approach is most effective

35
Q

physical punishment

A
  • mild physical punishment can be effective in changing behavior when it is done immediately after the act (not a few hours later)
  • has to be consistent, not too harsh, explained, and by an otherwise warm person and if acceptable behavior is reinforced
  • has been linked to increased aggression, anxiety, depression, and substance abuse
36
Q

social cognitive theory

A

humans are cognitive beings that process information consciously; plays a critical role in learning, behavior, and development

37
Q

observational learning

A

people learn by observing the behavior of others
- emphasized by Bandura
- Bobo doll study

38
Q

latent learning

A

a learning process in which you also learn from the punishments and rewards that others receive for their behavior
- you have not performed the behavior and received no punishment/reward, but you have seen this in someone else

39
Q

over-imitation

A

children imitate everything they see an adult doing, even if it has nothing to do with achieving their own goals

40
Q

self-efficacy

A

a person’s belief in themselves to complete a task or achieve a goal
- Bandura believed people played an active role in their own development

41
Q

reciprocal determinism

A

human development occurs through a continuous reciprocal interaction between the person, their behavior, and environment

42
Q

constructivism

A

children construct their own world based on their own understanding and interactions
- supperted by Piaget

43
Q

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

A
  • sensory-motor phase
  • pre-operational phase
  • concrete-operational phase
  • formal-operational phase
44
Q

sensory-motor phase

A
  • birth to 2 years
  • children use their senses and motor skills to understand the world
  • at first they only have innate reflexes, but they develop intelligent actions
  • eventually they can think of solutions through symbols thus plan solutions mentally
45
Q

pre-operational phase

A
  • 2 years to 7 years
  • pre-school children use their capacity for symbolic thinking to develop language, participate in fantasy games, and solve problems
  • their thinking is not yet logical, but egocentric
  • they are easily fooled by perceptions, and they do not yet think based on logical reasoning, thus unable to solve conservation problems
46
Q

concrete-operational phase

A
  • 7 years to 11 years
  • school children acquire concrete and logical reasoning that allows them to think mentally about objects
  • they can solve practical and real life problems through trial and error, but they have difficulty with hypothetical and abstract problems
47
Q

formal-operational phase

A
  • 11 years to 12+ years
  • adolescents can think about abstract concepts and purely hypothetical situations
  • with age and experience, they can think up consequences for behavior, they can devise hypotheses and test them very systematically
48
Q

sociocultural perspective

A

Vygotsky disagrees with the universal stages of development of Piaget and puts forward a theory that is shaped by the social and cultural context in which a child grows up
- each culture provides different skills (like language) which leads to a different way of thinking

49
Q

information processing approach

A

this compares the human brain to a computer that has hardware and software
- it involves basic mental processes such as attention, memory, making choices and cognitive tasks

50
Q

Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological model

A

consists of 4 environmental systems, and describes how the environment is organized and how it influences development
- microsystem
- meso-system
- exosystem
- macrosystem

51
Q

microsystem

A

an immediate physical and social environment in which the person interacts face-to-face with people
- primary microsystem is the family, the nursery or the group of friends
- important for the child’s development

52
Q

meso-system

A

interrelationships between 2 or more microsystems
- children who experience problems in one microsystem (home situation) also show problems in another microsystem (school)

53
Q

exosystem

A

social settings that the inidvidual does not experience directly but which still influence their development
- children are influenced by their parents’ work stess, by how strong the parents’ support network is, or by the environment in which they live

54
Q

macrosystem

A

the larger cultural context of which the micro, meso, and exosystem are a part
- it concerns cultural values, laws, political and economic systems, and institutions

55
Q

the chronosystem

A

assumes that the relationship between people and their environment changes over time
- developed by Bronfenbrenner

56
Q

proximal processes

A

reciprocal, recurrent interactions between the individual and other people, objects and symbols that lead to more effective functioning
- a proximal process in the microsystem family could be reading a story every evening, promoting language development

57
Q

PPCT model

A

Bronfenbrenner and Morris argue that if you want to understand development, you have to investigate it according to the PPCT model: process, person, context, and time, rather than just comparing children across different social addresses (culture and SES)

58
Q

psychoanalytic theory of Freud
(in perspective)

A
  • purpose: biologically-based sexual instincts motivate our behavior and guide development through five psychosocial stages
  • nature or nurture: it is more nature, biology shapes development, but early experiences in the family also influence development
  • active or passive: passive, you are influenced by forces beyond your control
  • continuous or discontinuous: discontinuous, there are phases
  • universal or context specific: universal
59
Q

psychoanalytic theory by Erikson
(in perspective)

A
  • goal: people grow through eight psychosocial conflicts
  • nature or nurture: interaction, equal measure of nature and nurture
  • active or passive: active
  • continuous or discontinuous: discontinuous, there are phases
  • universal or context specific: universal, but the phases may be different across cultures
60
Q

learning theory by Skinner
(in perspective)

A
  • objective: development is the product of learning the consequences of behavior through operant conditioning
  • nature or nurture: especially nurture
  • active or passive: passive, people are shaped by the environment
  • continuous or discontinuous: continuous, habits gradually increase or decrease in strength
  • universal or context specific: context specific because the direction of development depends on experience
61
Q

lerarning theory by Bandura
(in perspective)

A
  • purpose: development is the product of cognition, as illustrated by observational learning and over-imitation (‘human agency’)
  • nature or nurture: more nurture
  • active or passive: active, people influence their own environment
  • continuous or discontinuous: continuous
  • universal or context specific: context specific
62
Q

cognitive development theory
(in perspective)

A
  • goal: development goes through four stages of cognitive development
  • nature or nurture: interaction, and becoming an adult go hand in hand with gaining experiences
  • active or passive: active
  • continuous or discontinuous: discontinuous, there are phases
  • universal or context specific: universal
63
Q

ecological systems theory
(in perspective)

A
  • goal: development can go in many different directions, depending on transactions between the changing person and the changing environment
  • nature or nurture: nature and nurture influence eachother
  • active or passive: active
  • continuous or discontinuous: both
  • universal or context specific: context specific
64
Q

gene-environment interaction

A

the effect of our genes depends on the environment we experience; how we respond to our environment depends on our genes

65
Q

diathesis-distress model

A

a disorder is the result of an interaction between the predispositions or vulnerabilities that a person has (genes) and the experiences of stressful events

66
Q

differential sensitivity hypothesis

A

genes make some people more reactive than others to certain environmental influences (both good and bad)

67
Q

gene-environment correlations

A

an interaction states that people with different genes react differently to experiences, whereas gene-environment correlation states that people with different genes seek out different experiences

68
Q

passive correlation

A

parents pass on to their children both genes and a home environment that is linked to their own genes, so there is a correlation between the genes and the environment
- social parents not only pass on social genes, but also have a social household (parties)

69
Q

evocative correlation

A

the genotype of a child provokes reactions from other people
- a smiling and social baby gets more hugs than a shy one
- the social child is invited to more parties and gets better working relationships

70
Q

active correlation

A

the genotype of children influences the environment they seek
- if a child is extroverted, they seek out parties

71
Q

epigenesis

A

a general process in which nature and nurture influence each other to promote development

72
Q

epigenetic effects

A

ways in which environmental factors influence the expression of genes

73
Q

Havighurst’s theory of developmental tasks

A

several developmental tasks in middle adulthood (40-65):
- achieving civic and social responsibility
- achieving and maintaining economic standards
- helping your children to become responsible and happy adults
- developing adult hobbies
- being able to relate to your spouse
- accepting and adapting to the physiological changes you are going through
- adapting yourself to your ageing parents

74
Q

social clock model

A

the normative timetable of the culture leads to the life planning and personal goals of individuals in this culture
- people compare themselves to others, and based on this they create a timetable for their lives

75
Q

MacArtur model successful aging

A

states there are different ways of ageing
- normal ageing: normal age-related decline in physical, social, and cognitive functioning
- successful ageing: age-related decline in functioning is minized and there is an active engagement with life

76
Q

Baltes’ Selection-Optimization-Compensation model

A

successful ageing = SOC
- S = selection: selecting achieveable and important goals
- O = optimization: to optimize/improve what is difficult
- C = compensation: compensating for what is no longer feasible, such as buying a walking stick if it is no longer possible to walk independently

77
Q

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (SST)

A

motivation priorities shift across the life span as a function of future time horizons
- elderly people pay more attention to, remember better, and place more emphasis on positive than negative information

Developmental Psychology (13 decks)

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