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Social > Lecture 4 - Motivations and Goals > Flashcards

Lecture 4 - Motivations and Goals Flashcards

1
Q

How are the questions in the origins of motivations addressed many areas psychology

A

Biology - neural mechanism different associations and readiness activated

Personality - how people differ inherent levels motivation and propensity act

Social - how others and context influence motivation

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2
Q

What does Geen 1995 argue the driving force between volitional behaviour determine

A

Strength
Direction
Persistence behaviour

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3
Q

Outline Biological Needs

A

Serve evolutionary purpose survival and powerful influence on motivation

Food, warmth, sec

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4
Q

Outline psychological needs

A

Self actualisation - achieving full psychological potential

Self fulfilment - differ person to person

Autonomy - independence, freedom external control

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5
Q

How does Rogers 1960 explain motivated behaviour

A

Exploratory behaviour

Seeking tasks

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6
Q

What are Maslows 1954 Hierarchy of Needs

A 
Self Actualisation 
Esteem Needs 
Belongingness and Love needs 
Safety needs 
Physiological needs
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7
Q

Define self actualisation

A

Achieving ones full potential including creative activities

Being needs

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8
Q

Outline Esteem needs

A

Deficiency need

Prestige and feeling accomplishment

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9
Q

Outline Belongingness and Love needs

A

Deficiency needs

Intimate relationships and friends

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10
Q

Outline Safety Needs

A

Deficiency needs
Security
Safety

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11
Q

Outline Physiology Needs

A

Deficiency needs

Food, water, warmth, rest

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12
Q

Outline Deficiency needs

A

Physiological, Safety, Belongingness and Love, Esteem

Can’t progress up hierarchy unless deficient needs met

Deficient cognitive (learning and knowledge) and aesthetic needs (beauty) inserted after esteem needs

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13
Q

Outline link between Transcendence and Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

A

Transcendent needs put after self actualisation - support others to become self actualised

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14
Q

Outline Maslows hierarchy of needs and motivations

A

Maslow - 2% make it to top

Motivations - pluralistic behaviour. May pursue needs several different levels same time. E.g. eat same time socialising

Evidence mixed

Outcome oriented

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15
Q

What were Dunning 2001 motives for Social Judgement

A

Desire coherence

Affirmation of competence

Desire for knowledge

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16
Q

How is curiosity and knowledge linked

A

Power curiosity = important social judgement and decision making

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17
Q

Outline Loewenstein et al 1992 study on Curiosity and Knowledge

A

Ppts shown photographs of individuals body parts
Choice $.5 payment or seeing whole photograph body
Curiosity increased number body parts viewed
More likely want see body parts
Positive relationship between feelings knowing and curiosity

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18
Q

What enhances curiosity?

A

Issues familiar, have some expertise
New info violates expectations
Consequences for themselves - accountable for behaviour

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19
Q

What happens to curiosity when you are accountable

A 
Consider more alternatives 
More effort integrating factors 
Less likely succumb biases 
Better quality judgements 
Too much weight irrelevant info 
Bias beliefs towards those accountable to
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20
Q

Outline the relationship between curiosity and knowledge with the need for control

A

Knowledge enables prediction and control

Questioning people’s control subsequently makes them more competent in social cognitive tasks

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21
Q

Outline Pittman and Pittman 1980 study on the desire for knowledge

A

High, low or no helplessness training to identify concepts on cards

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22
Q

Outline Pittman and Pittman 1980 study on the desire for knowledge results for low helplessness condition

A

Low helplessness more accurate attributions about essay writing causes. Better able weigh up social judgements

Inferred weaker attitudes people wrote essays for pay. More hostile and anxious

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23
Q

Outline Pittman and Pittman 1980 study on the desire for knowledge results for high helplessness condition

A

Performance declined in high helplessness group. More depressed and anxious
Make people work harder and increase efforts gain control

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24
Q

Outline affirmation of competence and positive self esteem

A

Self serving attribution bias, optimistic bias, all think we are above average
Hard demonstrate biases printed just by self esteem motivates (cognitive processes)

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25
Q

Outline affirmation of competence, positive self esteem and self serving attribution bias

A

Due insight personal efforts and capabilities rather than just self esteem

Self affirmation fails show certain contexts you might think it would

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26
Q

Outline Freedman and Sears 1965 link with affirmation of competence

A

When given chance examine info that was to affirm or not affirm a decision e.g. car purchase
Most looked threatening info going against belief we like affirm

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27
Q

Outline the Desire for coherence

A

Motivated reduced contradictions

Cognitive dissonance Festinger 1957

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28
Q

Outline the Desire for Coherence and Cognitive Dissonance Festinger 1957

A

Forced compliance. Perform action goes against beliefs and no external justification end up changing beliefs

Effort justification: ppts value things work hard for

Free choice: after choosing one thing people tend denigrate the other

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29
Q

Does cognitive dissonance really exist?

A

May be dispassionate cognitive process - Bem 1972

Though negative affect reported

Only important inconsistencies cause dissonance

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30
Q

Outline Deci 1971 study

A

Paid student solve puzzles. When reward removes spent less time

When originally paid then told no money. Those who were originally unpaid continued to work.

Reward people -> attribute behaviour to extrinsic reward -> undermining effect

Intrinsic motivation be undermined if induced to engage with extrinsic goal

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31
Q

Who created the Self Determination Theory

A

Deci and Ryan 1985

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32
Q

Outline the 3 basic needs of the Self Determination Theory by Deci and Ryan 1985

A

3 basic needs => essential psychological growth, well being

Autonomy - self determination, goals decided by you

Competence - successful attainment goals

Relatedness - development and maintenance close personal relationships

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33
Q

What is the difference between the Self Determination Theory and Maslow and Dunnings

A

Maslow and Dunning = actively striving

Self Determination = not actively striving but when actions have these features creates better learning, performance, well being, psychological growth

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34
Q

Outline the Self Determination Theory by Deci and Ryan 1985

A

Continuum perceived locus regulation

Intrinsic motivation - enjoyment, satisfaction

Extrinsic motivation - external pressure, demands, rewards

Needs interact with social context

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35
Q

Outline the facilitation of natural growth processes in Self Determination Theory by Deci and Ryan 1985

A

Intrinsic motivation behaviour, integration of extrinsic motivations
OR
Reduced motivation, performance, well being able

More intrinsic more likely persist and maintain behaviour

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36
Q

Outline A-Motivation in the Self Determination Continuum

A

Non-regulation

Impersonal

Non intentional, non valuing, incompetence, lack control, forced do something don’t want to do

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37
Q

Outline External Regulation in the Self Determination Continuum

A

Extrinsic Motivation

External regulation and motivation

Compliance, external rewards and punishments

Based rewards

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38
Q

Outline Introjected Motivation in the Self Determination Continuum

A

Extrinsic motivation

Somewhat External

Self control, ego involvement. Internal rewards and punishment

Conflict ought and want to do

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39
Q

Outline Identified Regulation in the Self Determination Continuum

A

Extrinsic

Somewhat external

Personal importance, conscious valuing

Rules understood and valued

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40
Q

Outline Integrated Regulation in the Self Determination Continuum

A

Extrinsic

Internal motivation

Congruence, awareness, synthesis with self

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41
Q

Outline Intrinsic Motivation in the Self Determination Continuum

A

Intrinsic regulation

Internal

Interest, employment. Inherent satisfaction

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42
Q

What were the Extrinsic Motivations of the Self Determination Continuum

A

External Regulation

Introjected Regulation

Identified Regulation

Integrated Regulation

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43
Q

Outline the cognitive evaluation theory sub theory of self determination theory

A

Examines effects rewards feedback and other external events on intrinsic motivation

How interacts and be increased/decreased

44
Q

Outline the cognitive evaluation theory sub theory of self determination theory on intrinsic motivation

A

Primarily innate psychological needs - competence and autonomy
Effects external events depend functional significance perceived autonomy and perceived competence
Rewards sole driver behaviour or indicators competence
Relatedness features in interpersonal context
Extent which context controlling or not

45
Q

Outline Cue Value

A

Makes competence info salient

E.g. got that prize because you’re so good at that
Most people don’t manage that!

46
Q

Outline Verbal Rewards

A

Informational aspect salient thus increases intrinsic motivation

Perceived as controlling - leads undermining intrinsic motivation

Importance interpersonal context. Depending on person depends if these interpreted positively or negatively. Can undermine autonomy doing task because they wanted to do it

47
Q

Outline Lepper, Greene and Nisbett 1973 field study on 50 3-5year old nursery children

A

Showed intrinsic interest target activities of drawing
Expected reward: asked draw pictures and promised reward best drawing
Non-rewarded: drew without promise reward
Unexpected reward: drew and given surprise reward

48
Q

Outline Lepper, Greene and Nisbett 1973 field study on 50 3-5year old nursery children RESULTS

A

Those who expected reward spent significantly less time drawing

Over justification effect = reward indication cause behaviour external.

Salient rewards undermine intrinsic motivation

49
Q

Outline similarities between Over Justification Effect and Undermining Effect

A

Salient rewards undermine intrinsic motivation

Positive competence provided less likely undermine intrinsic motivation

50
Q

Outline differences between Over Justification Effect and Undermining Effect

A

Undermining = focus perception being controlled (diminished autonomy)

Over justification effect = rewards considered in advance - activity undertaken obtain goal

51
Q

What are the effects of a not expected reward on intrinsic motivations

A

Predicted to be NO effect

52
Q

Outline expected rewards Ryan et al 1983 typology of reward contingencies
Non contingent rewards
Engagement contingent rewards

A
  1. Non contingent rewards (not related performance tasks): IM not affected
  2. Engagement contingent rewards (pay attention get reward) rewards controlling. Little/no competence affirmation -> undermine IM
53
Q

Outline expected rewards Ryan et al 1983 typology of reward contingencies
Completion contingent rewards
Performance contingent rewards

A
  1. Completion contingent rewards: reward = competence but not strong relative to control -> undermine IM
  2. Performance contingent rewards: controlling -> strong undermining IM. Can convey competence info -> IM effects mixed. Context can influence
54
Q

What are the 4 typologies of reward contingencies identified by Ryan et al 1983

A

Non contingent rewards

Engagement contingent rewards

Completion contingent rewards

Performance contingent rewards

55
Q

Outline Deci et al 1999 meta analysis for undermining effects of rewards

A

Rewards significantly undermined IM for subsequent free choice behaviour

Unexpected rewards did not affect IM

Salient rewards result stronger undermining effect

Undermining not occur for boring tasks. Intrinsic motivation has to exist

56
Q

Outline effect sizes identified in Deci et al 1999 stud of Expected Rewards

A

Non contingent - no effect

Engagement contingent - undermine IM and self interest -0.4

Completion contingent - undermine IM and self interest - 0.36

Performance contingent - undermine IM but not reported self interest -0.28

57
Q

Outline the effects of expected rewards on age in Deci et al 1999 meta analysis

A

Verbal rewards enhance IM for college student but not children (no undermining in either group)

Tangible rewards more detrimental (greater undermining) for children

Positive verbal feedback enhances IM (not children). Controlling verbal rewards undermined IM

58
Q

Outline alternative explanations of Deci et al 1999 meta analysis

A

Behaviours rewarded culturally valued. Performing without reward basis approval

Rewarded people attribute performance less to themselves

59
Q

Outline alternative explanation of rewards being unrelated to performance by Deci et al 1999 meta analysis

A

Rewards unrelated to performance feel helpless misinterpreted as reductions in intrinsic motivations.

Rewards depending actions rewards facilitate learned industriousness

60
Q

Outline alternative explanation of rewards being internal or external by Deci et al 1999 meta analysis

A

Interpret private events using cultural descriptions including approval.

External events do not make private descriptions but follow instructions

61
Q

Who investigates values

A

Schwartz 1992

62
Q

Outline trans-situational goals by Schwartz 1992

A

Serve guiding principles in life person or group

63
Q

Outline the overall concept of values by Schwartz 1992

A

10 basic values relevant all societies
Organised structure some complement others inhibit
Develops from social and psych conflict and congruity between values people experience everyday
Continuum values presented in discrete categories

64
Q

Outline how Schwartz 1992 came up with his values

A

Tested universality through self report using cross sectional surveys
Samples drawn 20 countries within every inhabited continent
8 religions and atheists
Teachers and UGs
Analysed using Smallest Space Analysis
Organised motivational similarities and dissimilarities

65
Q

What is Smallest Space Analysis SSA

A

Represents values as points in space so distances between points reflect empirical relations between importance ratings

66
Q

What are Schwartz 1992 4 higher order values

A

Openness to change

Self transcendence

Self enhancement

Conservation

67
Q

Outline the structures and relationships identified by Schwartz Values 1992

A

Next to each other on paradigm similar and activate each other, further away less relationship and activation

On item salient it will suppress values opposing it

68
Q

Outline conformity in the structures and relationships identified by Schwartz Values 1992

A

Conformity - restraint action/impulses likely harm or upset others

Compared to

Tradition = restraining due to respect/commitment to religion/culture

69
Q

Outline Hedonism in the structures and relationships identified by Schwartz Values 1992

A

Hedonism straddles both openness to change and self enhancement

Similar to enhancement due to the focus on our self but not same competitive motivation

Arousal to motivation to change similar to openness

70
Q

Outline the dynamic relations between values by Schwartz 1992

A

Actions in pursuit values be compatible or may conflict with pursuit other values

E.g. actions express obedience may conflict actions intended express independence and be compatible with actions promoting social order

Adjacent values assumed most compatible: increasing distances indicates decreasing compatibility and greater conflict

71
Q

Outline the critiques of Schwartz 1992

A

Values appear in most cultures not all groups in same way - Chinese differed
Trying force universal structure on something that doesn’t have a universal structure

Spirituality unaccounted for only appeared in some cultures

Values expressed differently in actions by different people be argued to be of little consequence on their own

Values expressed may be normatively approved ideals rather personal value priorities

72
Q

Who researched into value clashes

A

Maio et al 2009

73
Q

What procedure does Maio et al 2009 use

A

Value self confrontation procedure by Rokeach 1975

74
Q

Outline Maio et al 2009 study

A

Asked ppts rank 16 values then shown values held other students

Manipulated to be dominated by 1 of the 4 meta theories

Values which were activated showed lower depressed scores of opposite meaning

75
Q

Outline how motivations engage with energy saving behaviour

A

Cost motivations = self enhancement values

Environmental motivations = self transcendence values

Clash between 2

76
Q

Outline the effects and applied value of engaging people with energy Spence et al 2014

A

Self enhancement reasons for self transcendence less ineffective

No difference effectiveness energy behaviour

Environmental messages more effective in driving additional environmental behaviours = behavioural spill over

77
Q

Outline difficulties with the effects and applied value of engaging people with energy Spence et al 2014 and spillover

A

Difficult stop people considering both costs

Combination messages possible

78
Q

Who investigates self regulation

A

Carver and Scheier 1981

79
Q

Outline Carver and Scheier 1981 on self regulation

A

Purposeful, self corrective, adjustments to peruse personal goals

Possible future self goals: unrealised future potential what you might be, direction and purpose

Goals reference values for feedback purposes

80
Q

Who created the Control theory of Self Regulation

A

Carver and Scheier 1981!

81
Q

Outline the Control theory of self regulation by Carver and Scheier 1981

A

Cybernetic control system
Reference future self compare Input = current self
Discrepancy put into your behaviour = output
Feed back in to next/future state
Secondary output = comparative feedback might feedback into potential future self if a big discrepancy feedback to lower expectations higher expectations if goal achieved

How change and develop over time

82
Q

Who created the self discrepancy theory

A

Higgins 1987

83
Q

Outline the self discrepancy theory by Higgins 1987

A

Compare actual self to ideal and ought

84
Q

Outline the ideal self as identified in the self discrepancy theory by Higgins 1987

A

Personal desires for self.

Promotion focused.

Resulting sadness or happiness

85
Q

Outline the ought self as identified in the self discrepancy theory by Higgins 1987

A

Defined duty, responsibility to others.

Avoid punishment, prevention focused, avoid negative judgement.

Result in anxiety, guilt or relief

86
Q

Outline incentives

A

Higher order desired outcome

Subsiding lower order goals

E.g. gain money

87
Q

Outline how incentives are shaped by needs

A

Personal forces narrow down classes incentives

E.g. need for social power

88
Q

Outline Goals and name the 2 types of goals

A

Lower order aims serve incentives

E.g. get a part-time job

Assigned goals
Self-set goals

89
Q

Define assigned goals

A

Transformed into personal goals - intrinsic motivation

Perceived desirable and feasible
Personal and redefined
Integrated other existing goals

90
Q

Define self-set goals

A

Be desirable and feasible

Choose for ourselves

Achievable whilst demonstrating competence

91
Q

Who investigates goal setting and the fantasy realisation theory

A

Oettingen 2000

92
Q

Outline the study by Oettingen 2000 on goal setting and the fantasy realisation theory

A

140 females study on daydreams
Info attracts student
Imagine met him at a party

Fantasy reality - elaborate 2 positive and 2 negative aspects real situation

Positive fantasy - elaborate 4 positives

Negative - elaborate 4 negatives

Control - arithmetic tasks

93
Q

Outline the study by Oettingen 2000 on goal setting and the fantasy realisation theory RESULTS

A

Fantasy reality subsequently more eager meet attractive student

Contrast positive and negative

Delayed future ideas to here and now

Negative - no motivation to act
Positive - no necessity that act is experienced

94
Q

Who investigated the Automotive Theory

A

Bargh 1990

95
Q

Outline Bargh 1990 Automotive Theory

A

Goals activated without awareness

Strong mental links form between situations and goals often pursued

Over time situations develop activate links without conscience awareness

Requires initial reflective goal repeated over time

96
Q

Who investigated existence of implicit motives

A

Carver and Scheier 1999

97
Q

Outline Carver and Scheier 1999 and the existence of implicit motives

A

Natural incentives not require awareness

Minor require intention to be formed - biological

98
Q

Who investigates how we achieve goals through the model of action phases

A

Heckhausen and Golleitzer 1987

99
Q

Outline how we achieve goals through the model of action phases by Heckhausen and Golleitzer 1987

A

Pre decisional: deliberating goals and choosing between them

Pre actional: planning goal directed actions and getting started

Actional: successfully achieving goal

Postactional: evaluating outcome

100
Q

Outline how Heckhausen and Golleitzer 1987 argue that by breaking down components we get into the mindset for each step and more likely to achieve

A

Implement mindset

Focus relevant info - less distracted

Process desirability info in biased banner - less doubts

Process feasibility info in Biased manner - more optimistic

101
Q

How do we plan for goal achievement according to Heckhausen and Gollwitzer 1987

A

If encounter situation X

Then I will perform goal directed behaviour Y

102
Q

Outline the implementation of intentions according to Heckhausen and Gollwitzer 1987

A

Delegate control behaviour to environment

Action representation activated by cues - automate behaviour

103
Q

What do the implementations of the intentions outlined by Heckhausen and Gollwitzer 1987 reduce the problems of

A

Initiating goal directed behaviour

Stabilising goal striving - resisting distractions

Shielding goal striving from obstacles

104
Q

Outline the effect size by the meta analysis conducted by Gollwitzer and Sheeran 2006

A

Medium to large effect size

0.65

105
Q

What does the effect size by the meta analysis conducted by Gollwitzer and Sheeran 2006 specify

A

Specified external cue and desired behaviour

But can target different self regulatory problems: focus stabilising goal striving, focus on shielding physical activity goals

106
Q

Outline Brandstatter et al 2001 study on 40 heroin addicts at a German hospital

A

20 experiencing withdrawal, 21 no longer in withdrawal
Unemployed and to compose a CV

Half assigned make irrelevant imp (plan) half assigned make relevant imp

107
Q

Outline Brandstatter et al 2001 study on 40 heroin addicts at a German hospital RESULTS

A

Relevant imp significantly more likely hand in CV next day

Both those in withdrawal and out of withdrawal

Imp/Plan helpful even under high cognitive load

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