Lecture 2 - Attitudes Flashcards
What is Thurnstone 1931 definition of an attitude
Affect for or against a psychological object
Outline Allport 1935 definition of an attitude
Mental and neural state readiness, organised through experience, exerting directive or dynamic influence upon individuals response to all objects and situations with which it is related
Outline Fazio 1989 definition of an attitude
Associations between attitude objects and evaluations of these objects
Outline Pratkanis and Greenwalds 1989 emphasis on categorisation
- Object label and rules applying label
- Evaluative summary object
- Knowledge structure supporting evaluation
Outline Unitary Model of component theories of attitude
Affective evaluation
Thurnstone 1931`
Outline Dual Model of component theories of attitude
Mental readiness
Guide evaluative responses - Allport 1935
Outline Tripartite Model of component theories of attitude
Attitude Object
Cognitive, Affective, Behavioural
What are the bases of Attitude, Behavioural, Cognitive
Attitude - emotion based
Behavioural - intention based
Cognitive - belief based
What are the behavioural theories of attitude formation
Mere exposure
Classical conditioning
Instrumental conditioning
Observational Learning
What is the mere exposure behavioural theory of attitude formation
Familiarity increases liking
What is the classical conditioning behavioural theory of attitude formation
Neutral stimuli paired salient response results in attitude
Encounter positive setting, gain positive association
What is the instrumental conditioning behavioural theory of attitude formation
Attitudes shaped by reinforcement system of reward and punishment
What is the observational learning of behavioural theory of attitude formation
Modelling in vicarious experiences, particularly extreme views
What are the cognitive theories of attitude formation
Information integration theory
Mood as information hypothesis
Heuristic/Associative Processing
Emphasis internal representation and interpretation
What is the Information integration theory of cognitive theories of attitude formation
Formed by averaging available information on an object
What is the Mood as information hypothesis of cognitive theories of attitude formation
Emotion (mood) provides basis of evaluation of objects
What is the Heuristic/Associative
Processing of cognitive theories of attitude formation
Decision ‘rules of thumb’ are used make judgement and form mental shortcuts memory
Outline Attitude formation of Self Perception Theory
Infer attitudes from own behaviour - Bem 1960
Behave without thinking, only on reflection infer attitudes
Outline Haemmerlie and Montgomery 1982-4 study on Self Perception Theory and Heterosexual anxiety
People who are anxious around opposite sex increase problem by becoming more anxious
Created situation 2 individuals constantly good interactions, reducing anxious behaviour
On reflection less anxious, increased confidence
Outline Kurt Vonnegut - Mother Night on Self Perception Theory
We are what we pretend to be, so we must be careful about what we pretend to be
How are Parents sources of attitude formation
Infer attitudes from those closest to you
Strength associate ranges from strong for broad issues to very weak for specific attitudes
How are the Mass Media sources of attitude formation
Particularly TV an important influence on children
Outline Mass Media experiment by Atkin 1980
Links between TV advertisements and childrens attitudes and perceptions sugary foods/drinks
How can we measure attitudes
- Attitude Scales - Likert, Semantic differential
- Physiological Measures
- Unobtrusive measures of behaviour
- Implicit measures of attitudes - Attitude priming, Implicit association test
Outline a Likert Scale
Extent people agree/disagree statement
Average index of cognitive attitudes
Could be scale 1 - 7
Whats an issue of Likert Scales
Acquiescent Response Set - tendency agree
How do we overcome Acquiescent response issues
Mix positively and negatively phrased items to counteract the problem
Who investigated the Semantic Differential Scale
Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum 1957
Outline the Semantic Differential Scale
Given adjectives asked which relates to how they feel about a particular stimulus.
Outline a criticism of the Semantic Differential Scale
Reductionist, over-simplistic
Outline Physiological Measures
Skin resistance, heart rate, pupil dilation
Polygraph
Lass able alter responses
Measures intensity - not measure direction 9positive or negative)
Influence other things - salient/novel stimuli
Development social neuroscience methods
Outline Implicit Measures
Based activation accessible categories in memory
Activation one object automatically activate another
Less easy ppts influence their responses
Not always reliable
Help predict behaviour
Outline Fazio’s Automatic Activation Model
Represent activation object in your head, that will activate automatic evaluation of that object
Automatic, cant prevent evaluation occurring
Outline Implicit Association Test of Greenworld
Produces big effect sizes, reliable, convergent reliability
Asking ppts categorise 2 things at once.
First object interest and evaluation
Response key associated with particular exemplar
But pairings switched. Categories perform best seen stronger association = representative attitudes
Outline LaPiere 1934 attitude-behaviour relationship
Hoteliers and restauranters attitudes towards Asians 1930s USA.
Visited 66 hotels, restaurants, only got turned away once.
6 months later questionnaire sked if accept Chinese customers 92% said no.
Contradiction attitude and behaviour
Evaluation of LaPiere 1934 study
People responding to questionnaire may not be same people
Very different saying something and actually doing something
6month time gap
Outline Wickers 1969 meta analysis on attitudes and behaviour
Attitudes weakly correlated with behaviour across 45 studies
.15
Methodological reasons for attitude-behaviour relationship
Unreliability and low validity attitude/behaviour measures
Data only good as your measure
Prone influence other factors
Time between attitude and behavioural measure
Modality - conditions need be correct
Outline other variables
Attitudes influence behaviour through intentions. Lack compatibility/correspondence between attitude and behaviour - generality attitude measure
Target, action, context, time
Strong indirect attitude-behaviour relationships e.g. through intentions
Who created the Expectancy Value Model of Attitudes
Fishbein 1967
Outline Fishbein 1967 Expectancy Value Model of Attitudes
Attitudes alone not predict behaviour
Interaction beliefs, values, attitudes, intentions important
Each belief multiplied by each value to produce attitude score
Outline Fishbein 1967 Expectancy Value Model of Attitudes definition of Belief
Behaviour result in certain outcome
e.g. studying hard gain me good grades
Outline Fishbein 1967 Expectancy Value Model of Attitudes definition of Values
Outcome highly valued
e.g. getting good grades is important to me
Outline who created the Theory of Reasoned Action
Ajzen and Fishbein 1980
Outline The Theory of Reasoned Action by Ajzen and Fishbein 1980
Attitudes, Subjective norms, intentions, behaviour
What creates and feeds into attitudes in The Theory of Reasoned Action by Ajzen and Fishbein 1980
Behavioural beliefs X value of Belief
What creates and feeds into Subjective Norms
in The Theory of Reasoned Action by Ajzen and Fishbein 1980
Normative beliefs X Motivation
Who created the Theory of Planned Behaviour
Ajzen 1989
What are the key constructs of The Theory of Planned Behaviour Ajzen 1989
Perceived Control
Subjective Norms
Attitudes
Intentions
What feeds into Perceived Control in The Theory of Planned Behaviour Ajzen 1989
Control beliefs X Perceived Power
Who created Perceived Behavioural Control
Madden, Ellen and Ajzen 2012
Outline Perceived Behavioural Control by Madden, Ellen and Ajzen 2012
Extent which seen difficult or easy to do something
Independent pathway predict behaviour
Perception influence intentions, also outside influences
Explain more variance
What does Fazios 1990 MODE stand for
Motivation and Opportunity as Determinates of processing model
Outline Fazios 1990 MODE Model
Attitudes guide behaviour spontaneously
When have cognitive capacity, motivation, opportunity think carefully explicit attitudes guide behaviour
Outline Fazios 1990 MODE view on explicit attitudes
Explicit measures -> think carefully -> more predictive -> deliberate behaviour
Outline Fazios 1990 MODE view on implicit attitudes
Implicit measures -> indirect, predictive -> Automatic behaviour, difficult control
Outline Persuasive Communication
Yale Approach precursor and highly influential in persuasive communication
Outline Hovland et al features of persuasive communication
Source or communicator
Message (content)
Audience
Who says what to whom and with what effect?
Outline the source or communicator
Experts more persuasive and credible
Popular and attractive communicators most effective
Speaking more quickly more effective than slow speakers
Conveys expertise
Outline source
credibility according to Bochner and Insko 1996
All aspects, features, contexts interact one another
Source credibility interacts nature message
Asked how much sleep really need. Exposed communication 2 sources opinion: 1 low credibility and 1 high credibility
Final opinion changes more as discrepancy changed. Believe to certain extent
Outlie The Message
Persuasion more effective if message not thought trying influence
Repetition increases familiarity, belief, liking
Enhanced arguments match audiences current attitude functions
What does Janis and Feshbach 1953 argue about whether fear works on persuasion
Early research
Low fear optimal
Dental hygiene
What does Leventhal et al 1967 argue about whether fear works on persuasion
High fear message promoted greater willingness stop smoking
Outline McGuire 1969 argue about whether fear works on persuasion
Inverted-U Shape Hypothesis
Too little fear may not highlight potential harm
Very fearful distract people message itself or may evoke an avoidance reaction
Outline Witte and Allen 2000 meta analysis of fear appeals
Strong fear appeals produce high levels perceived severity and susceptibility, more persuasive, particularly when feel need take action
Too high = defensive action
Strong fear appeals high efficacy greatest
Strong fear low efficacy greatest defence
Outline messaged about fear from communicating about climate change in Spence et al 2010
Messages provoked fear
More memorable
Increased perceived severity
Focus positives increased positive attitudes
Outline Outcome Framing
Health Psych focusing gains or losses differentially useful for different behaviour
Gains - useful perceived low risk. Preventative behaviours
Losses - high risk. Detection behaviours
Outline the medium of the message by Eagly and Chaiken 1983
Different medium useful different messages
Difficult messages best persuasive when written - go back and review
Easy info best visual
Outline the audience - self-esteem
People low self-esteem more susceptible persuasion and attitude change
Outline McGuire 1968 Inverted-U relationship with the audience and self esteem
Low self-esteem - less attentive, more anxious
High self-esteem - less susceptible influence, more self-assured
Outline the audience effects of gender
Women more easily persuaded
Socialisation cooperative roles
May be due to predominance male researchers - focus male topics
Outline Carli 1990 effects of the audience effects of gender
Men in particular resist influence by women
Women more persuasive in traditional ‘female’ domains
Tempered when women also display warmth and communality
Who created the elaboration likelihood model
Petty and Cacioppo 1986
Outline the Elaboration Likelihood Model by Petty and Cacioppo 1986
Two routes persuasion
Central route = high level message followed closely, cognitive effort expended
Peripheral route =
Low level,
superficial processing peripheral cues, attraction rather than info
Who created the Heuristic Systematic Model
Chaiken 1987
Outline the Heuristic Systematic Model by Chaiken 1987
Systematic processing - careful, deliberate, processing available info
Heuristic processing - short cuts.
Longer arguments convincing. Statistics don’t lie
Cant trust a lawyer
Looks knowledgeable
Outline Petty and Wegener 1998 Sufficient Threshold`
Long as heuristics produce attitude confident with
Always start with stats
Problems and conflicting signals move systematic processing
What can halt systematic processing
Mood - good moods tend use heuristics
Emotion - high fear messages tend be processed peripherally, low fear more central
Outline the Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Inconsistency upsetting creates cog dissonance = unpleasant state/feeling
Behaviour driving change
Inconsistency motivate change = restore balance
Who created the Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Festinger 1954
What is the 1st Premise of Cognitive Dissonance
Person behaves or presented with info that is counter attitudinal an internal conflict arises
What is the 2nd premise of Cognitive Dissonance
Dissonance motivates people make alterations to their behavioural or internal states to restore equilibrium
What is the 3rd premise of Cognitive Dissonance
Dissonance be attenuated (reduced) using 3 means:
Reducing importance one dissonant elements (attitude change)
Adding a consonant element (cognitive re-appraisal)
Changing one dissonant elements (behaviour)
Who investigates Induced Cognitive Dissonance
Festinger and Carlsmith 1959
Outline Festinger and Carlsmith 1959 study on Induced Cognitive Dissonance
Asked ppts spend hour boring tasks generate strong negative attitudes.
Asked talk next ppt tell them task was interesting
Outline Festinger and Carlsmith 1959 study RESULTS on induced Cognitive Dissonance
Paid $20 extra justification tell ppt boringness
Paid $1 left inconsistency, resolve they justify task and tell next ppt task was interesting
Who investigated Effort Justification
Aronson and Mills 1959
Outline Aronson and Mills 1959 study on Effort Justification
Discussion group on psychology sex. Mild and High embarrassment group for reading assessment
Then discussion group - talk sexual behaviours in animals
Outline Aronson and Mills 1959 study on Effort Justification RESULTS
Rate discussion group and how interesting/boring and same for ppts
Mild embarrassment - honest boringness
High embarrassment - rated discussion and ppts more interesting
