Lecture 2: Attention, Memory, Cognition

Question 1

Attention

Answer 1

1. A focus on a certain stimuli to the exclusion of another
2. Limited in capacity: may be a big cognitive load if too much (cognitive load: amount of mental resources that you devote to a task)

Question 2

Spotlight model

Answer 2

1. When we want to focus our attention on an area, we notice things around area (fringe), but with less detail…and there are some things that we don’t notice at all (margin)

Question 3

Selective attention

Answer 3

1. Process of focusing on relevant stimuli while filtering out irrelevant stimuli to the task at hand: occurs when we focus on certain stimuli and block out others
2. Cocktail party effect: example of selective attention
   2a. Party, someone says your name in conversation with someone else…only focus on conversation where they said your name

Question 4

Alternating attention

Answer 4

1. The ability to switch between tasks
2. Common in every day tasks

Question 5

Divided attention/multitasking

Answer 5

1. Splits perceptual resources between multiple stimulus: paying attention to more than one thing at a time
2. Factors that influence our ability to multitask
   2a. Task similarity
   2b. Task difficulty
   2c. Practice: reduces cognitive interference (when one stimulus makes it difficult to attend to another stimulus) making multitasking more efficient

Question 6

Stroop effect

Answer 6

1. Demonstration of cognitive interference in selective and divided attention
   1a. Selective: attempt to focus on only colour of ink while ignoring meaning of word
   1b. Divided: you are multitasking between 2 stimuli by greying to say Color of ink and suppressing need to read meaning of word
2. This is difficult: task of reading has a cognitive load so low that you automatically pay attention to meaning of word which says saying colours less efficient

Question 7

Sustained attention

Answer 7

1. Attention to a stimulus over a long period of time /vigilence
2. Large cognitive load (ex: wanting to watch tv when studying)

Question 8

Cues that draw attention to stimulus

Answer 8

1. Endogenous cues: internal, learned (top down), voluntary top down processing before drawn to stimulus
2. Exogenous cues: external, innate, involuntary demanding your attention
   2a. Lead to attentional capture: involuntarily directed towards a stimulus (ex: large noise)

Question 9

Selective attention: Types of orienting/blindness to block stimuli

Answer 9

1. Overt orienting: refusing the body (especially eyes) onto new object of attention
2. Covert orienting: mental shift of attention without moving the body, head or eyes
3. Inattentional/perceptual blindness: when otherwise exogenous cues detected by sensory system goes unnoticed due to selective attention

Question 10

Change blindness

Answer 10

1. When environment changes and you don’t notice

Question 11

Proximal and distal stimuli

Answer 11

1. Distal: object in environment
2. Proximal stimulus: from distal stimulus that strikes sensory receptor

Question 12

Attention processing theories: Broadbent theory primary selection model

Answer 12

1. Get large number of stimuli->temporarily in sensory buffer (unlimited capacity)->filter only allows 1 stimulus at a time
2. Attended stimulus->sensory store->selective filter->higher level processing->working memory

Question 13

Attention processing theories: Treisman theory

Answer 13

1. Attenuation theory: Get large number of stimuli->temporarily in sensory buffer (unlimited capacity)->info passes through an attenuator that dampens some of the information coming in without losing it together
   2a. So attended information still undergoes broadbents theories, but unattended goes through the same model with less attention

Question 14

Attention processing theories: late selection model

Answer 14

1. Stimuli are analyzed for meaning before selection
2. Says filtering occurs just before entry into working memory: say we percieve everything even if we aren’t consciously aware of what we perceive

Question 15

Dichotomy listening tests

Answer 15

1. Use speech shadowing to test attention
2. Broadbent: Repeat or shadow story played in right word…asked what you head in left ear …can’t do it
3. Treisman: ppl listen to nonsensical streams of words from each ear

Question 16

Atkinson-Shiffrin model of information processing

Answer 16

1. 3 stages of information processing
   1a. Sensory information (3-7 units for 3 secs): has iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory
   1b. Short term memory/Working memory: if given attention, sensory info goes to working where it must be met with rehearsal to retain it (5-9 units for 5-15 secs)
   1c. Long term memory
2. Said information was serial processing model (1info at a time)…this isn’t accurate because we are capable of parallel processing

Question 17

Ways to remember information in working memory

Answer 17

1. Maintenance Rehearsal: repetition of a thought over and over to keep in short term and perhaps transfer to working
2. Elaborative rehearsal/encoding: attaching meaning to keep smth in short term and transfer to long term

Question 18

Baddeley and Hitch: short term memory changes to working memory

Answer 18

1. Central executive: deals with cognitive tasks like math, problem solving and decided what info recieves priority
   1a. Visuospatial sketchpad: for visuo spatial info
   1b. Phonological loop: spoken and written information where It goes between phonological store (maintains spoken info for 1-2s) to articulatory control processing (rehearses verbal information and keeps sending to phonological store)
   1c. Episodic buffer: acts as backup system that communicates w long term memory and components of working memory
2. Dual coding hypothesis: verbal and visual information are stored differently

Question 19

Automatic and effortful processing

Answer 19

1. Automatic processing: encoding w/o effort
2. Effortful processing: encoding w effort

Question 20

Types of encoding

Answer 20

1. Visual: encoding images
2. Acoustic: encode sound
3. Elaborative: associate new info w old info
4. Semantic: encode words and their meanings

Question 21

Recoding

Answer 21

1. Convert information into a form that makes sense to us

Question 22

Processes that assist encoding

Answer 22

1. Chunking: group info
2. Mnemonics: link previous knowledge w new info you are trying to remember (ex: peg word, method of loci)
   2a. Self reference effect: associate info w something about yourself
3. Encoding specificity: environment you learn info affects ability to recall it
4. Spacing effects: encoding is effective if its seperated times

Question 23

Long term memory

Answer 23

1. Explicit memory: consciously remember
   1a. Episodic: memories associated w events in your life
   1b. Semantic: language based knowledge
2. Implicit memory: not aware of
   2a. Procedural: motor and cognitive skills
   2b. Priming: prior exposure influences subsequent responses
3. Prospective memory: tasks to do later

Question 24

Semantic network

Answer 24

1. Schema for encoding concepts
2. Spreading activation: when you remember one thing, you remember things related to

Question 25

How is accessible information retrieved (available information is all info in long term memory)

Answer 25

1. (Free) Recall: accessing memories without reliance on cues 1a. serial position effect: recall of listed items is affected by order such as primacy and recency 2. Recollection: reconstructing memories based upon cues 2a. Use of retrieval cues to remember 2b. Cue overload principle: a cue is only effective when not attached to too many memories (example of a cue is priming) 3. Recognition: recognizing familiar information 3a. Shallow processing: focusing on superficial aspects of words/ideas 3b. Deep processing: focusing on the meanings of words and ideas and relating them to similar concepts - >makes memories easier to recall 4. Relearning: relearning previously learned information 4a. Testing effect: each retrieval of a memory makes it more easy to be retrieved in the future

Question 26

Retrieval induced forgetting

Answer 26

When the retrieval of one memory may inhibit teh future retrieval of a related memory

Question 27

Distortion types

Answer 27

1. Misattribution: source of memory is confused 2. Suggestibility: false memories suggested by someone else 3. Bias: memories are distorted by belief system

Question 28

Intrusion

Answer 28

1. Persistence: involuntary recall of undesirable memories

Question 29

State dependant memory

Answer 29

1. It is easier to remember when in same state as encoding 2. Mood congruence effect: recall memories that align w current mood

Question 30

Flashbulb memories

Answer 30

1. Vivid memories that are highly inaccurate but easier to recall

Question 31

Memory interference

Answer 31

1. Proactive interference: old memories makes it hard to learn new things 2. Retroactive interference: new memories make it hard to remember old things

Question 32

Forgetting types

Answer 32

1. Transience: accessibility of memory decreases over time (shown in Ebbinghaus forgetting curve) 2. Absent mindedness: lack of attention 3. Blocking: accessibility is temporarily blocked

Question 33

Age related memory impairments (AMI)

Answer 33

1. Several memory types such as episodic (implicit =constant) 2. Not associated w memory loss w Alzheimer’s disease, wenick-korsakoff, etc

Question 34

Neurocognitive disorders

Answer 34

1. Dementia: decline in memory, communication, thinking 1a. Alzheimer’s disease(AD): type of dementia due to low Ach 2. Parkinson’s disease (PD): low dopamine in basal ganglia=shake =leads to dementia 3. Huntington disease: progresses to dementia 4. Wernickes korsakoff syndrome (WKS): retrograde amnesia that follows temporal curve (new memories more affected)

Question 35

Changes in synaptic connections

Answer 35

1. Engram: group of neurons that represent memory 1a. Equipotentiality hypothesus: if part of engram is damaged=replacement part forms 2. Brain parts in memory: 2a. Amygdala: memory in fear 2b. Hippocampus: connects new information 2c. Cerebellum: implicit memories 2d. Cerebral cortex: semantic memory

Question 36

Long term potentiation/depression

Answer 36

1. Long term potentiation: memory network grows 1a. Neural plasticity: network pathways can change and become more efficient 2. Long term depression: synapses are inhibited

Question 37

Piagets cognitive development

Answer 37

1. Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs): gain object permanence (or constancy) 2. Preoperational (2-7yrs): symbols, memory, imagination develop, egocentric 3. Concrete operational (7-12yrs): consider others/apply conservation 4. Formal operational (12+): abstract thinking

Question 38

Piagets mental models

Answer 38

1. Assimilation: changing info to fit schemas 2. Accommodation: changing old schemas to fit info 3. Equilibration: attempt to find balance between assimilation and accommodation

Question 39

Cognitive changes in late adulthood

Answer 39

1. Improves: semantic memory, reading comprehension, logical reasoning 2. Declines: episodic memory, free recall, processing speed

Question 40

Types of cognitive styles

Answer 40

1. Holistic cognitive style: focuses on context and relationships between object and scene 2. Analytic cognitive style: confuses on discrete objects and their properties