Learning Week 7 Flashcards
When a stimulus is repeated and the response to it weakens
Habituation
Noticing the loud ticks of a clock and then eventually tuning it out is and example of
Habituation
Classical conditioning is also known as —– conditioning
Pavlovian
Operant conditioning is also known as —– conditioning
instrumental
Both Classical and operant conditioning are forms of
Associative learning
Russian Physiologist that studies digestion and came up with a basis of classic conditioning in psychology
Ivan Pavlov
This elicits and involuntary unconditioned response:
Unconditioned stimulus
An innate or involuntary or unlearned resposnse to a stilulus is known as a: (it may be a reflex or a response of the autonomic nervous system ANS)
Unconditioned response
Simulus that does not elicit an UCR, but once paired with a unconditioned stimulus it can over time then become a conditioned a respomse.
Neutral Stimulus
Stimulus that was once neutral but has now become conditioned
Conditioned Stimulus
Conditioned response
Touching a hot stove and pulling your hand back after touching it is an example of an unconditioned response. In this scenario the stove is the —– ——-.
Unconditioned stimulus
An unconditioned response to a stimulus is usually actioned by our ——– nervous system
Autonomic
An unconditioned response is an innate or unlearned response to a stimulus and is called an
Unconditioned response (and most of the time is a reflex or involuntary)
When a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus it can elicit a
conditioned response
An excessive fear of a object, place or situation
Phobia
hearing a loud BANG and crying is a ——– response to a ——- stimulus
unconditioned response to an unconditioned response (its pretty natural to do it/reflex)
UCS + NS =
UCR
after conditioning the NS becomes the
CR
An environmental stimulus leads to a learned response is called:
Classical conditioning
The pairing in conditioning is done by pairing what:
Unconditioned (reflex) stimulus with a neutral stimulus
When an organism learns to respond to stimuli that resemble the CS with a similar response
Stimulus generalisation
(in Classical conditioniing) presentation of the CS without the UCS still elicits a CR is called:
extinction (pavlov could just ring the bell and the dog would salivate, the food dint need to be there)
To operate on the environment and produce a consequence
Operant Conditioning
Consequence that increases the probability a response will occur
Reinforcement
Consequence that decreases the probability a response will occur
Punishment
In Operant conditioning, when enough trials pass in which the operant is not followed by consequences previously associated with it
Extinction (operant conditioning)
Operant conditioning is influenced by
cultural factors and the characteristics of the learner
Theory that incorporates concepts of conditioning from behaviourism but adds cognition and social learning
Cognitive-Social Theory
Cognitive-Social Theory surrounds cognition and social learning but also incoporates concepts of
conditioning from behaviourism
Humans develop mental images of and expectations about, the environment and these influences their behaviour - is the basis poof what theory
Cognitive Social Theory
What is learning through social interaction called
Social Learning
Learning is essentially about
prediction - predicting the future from past experience and using these predictions to guide behaviour.
something in the environment that elicits a response
Stimulus
a behaviour that is elicited automatically by an environmental stimulus, such as the knee-jerk reflex elicited
by a doctor’s rubber hammer.
Reflex
the more that same stimulus is presented, the weaker the
baby’s response to that stimulus becomes, is an example of
habituation
a function that habituation seems to serve
helps us screen out information that does not predict anything useful to us
The 3 assumptions of learning
- experience shapes behaviour
- Learning is adaptive (as in the darwinism sense)
3.experimentation uncovers laws of learning
Aristotle proposed a set of laws of association— which are
- the law of contiguity, ( proposes that two events will become connected in the
mind if they are experienced close together in time ) And - the law of similarity, which states that objects that resemble each other are likely to become associated.
Learning refers to any enduring change in the way an organism responds based on its experience:
Learning
Pavlovian or respondent conditioning is also known as
Classical conditioning
A response that has been learned
conditioned response
a stimulus that, through learning, has
come to evoke a conditioned response
Conditioned stimulus
This initial stage of learning, in which the conditioned response becomes associated with the conditioned stimulus (during “conditioning”
Acquisition
initially neutral stimulus comes to elicit a
conditioned response is a process called
Classical conditioning
a field that studies how our thoughts and feelings can affect our body’s immune system,
Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)
An environmental stimulus leads to a learned response, through pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a previously neutral conditioned stimulus. This is called:
In classical conditioning,
Once an organism has learned to associate a CS with a UCS, it may respond to stimuli that resemble the
CS with a similar response. This phenomenon, called
stimulus generalisation
a person who has been frequently criticised by a parent responds negatively to all authority figures is an example of
Generalisation
the learned tendency to respond to a restricted range of stimuli or only to the stimulus used during training
Stimulus discrimination
Pavlov’s dogs did not salivate in response to just any sound, and people do not get hungry when the clock reads four o’clock even though it is not far from six o’clock. This is an example of stimulus —–
Discrimination. being able to discriminate between two similar stimuli when these stimuli are not consistently associated with the same UCS. The clock is the same but the hour is different, a ding may sound different between a bell and a saucepan
in classical conditioning refers to the process by which a CR is weakened by the presentation of the CS without the UCS
Extinction
If a dog has come to associate the sounding of a bell with
food, it will eventually stop salivating at the bell tone if the bell rings enough times without the presentation
of food. The association is weakened — but not obliterated. If days later the dog once more hears
the bell, it is likely to salivate again. This is known as
spontaneous recovery
the re-emergence of a
previously extinguished conditioned response.
spontaneous recovery
the time between presentation of the CS and the UCS is called the
The interstimulus interval
The order the subject expriences the USC and CS matters. Like CS then UCS or UCS then CS - True or false
True. ie when teaching something new, the order of things matters. Imagine training a dog. If you give them a treat after they’ve done something good, they learn better. It’s like saying, “Great job!” and then giving the treat
refers to the failure of a stimulus to elicit a CR when it is combined with another stimulus that already elicits the
response. If a bell is already associated with food, a flashing light is of
little consequence unless it provides additional, non-redundant information
Blocking
Forward, simultaneous and backward conditioning. as the UCS.
Forward conditioning is most likely to lead to —–
learning
In forward conditioning, the type studied most
extensively by Pavlov, the onset of the —- occurs before the ——.
the CS occurs before the UCS.
In simultaneous conditioning, the
CS is presented
at the same time
In backward conditioning, the —–is presented after
the onset of the —–.
In backward conditioning, the CS is presented after
the onset of the UCS.
When something seems ordinary at first, it can slow down how quickly we learn a new connection or change our thoughts about it later on. It’s like our brains need a little extra time to figure things out when they’re unexpected. This is called
“latent inhibition.”
“latent inhibition is:
Latent inhibition is when our brains take longer to learn something new if we’ve been exposed to a neutral thing (like a sound) many times before without any special meaning. It’s like our brain needs extra time to catch on when the new thing becomes important.
A third influence on classical conditioning is the organism’s
readiness to learn certain associations
research has shown that some responses can be conditioned much more
readily to certain stimuli than to others.
An experiment showed that animals learn differently based on what kind of bad experience they have, and discovered the —– effect
Garcia Effect
the biologically wired readiness to learn some associations more easily than others:
Prepared learning
Contiguity
how close or near two events or stimuli are in time or space. It’s about how closely things happen together. In psychology, it’s important for learning because when two things occur closely in time, our brains tend to link them together.
Rescorla and Wagner (1972) proposed the law of ——
to replace the law of contiguity.
prediction
the CR is
actually the body’s attempt to counteract the effects of a stimulus that is about to occur is known as
Paradoxical conditioning
the tendency of a group of neurons to fire more readily after consistent stimulation from other neurons is called
Long Term Potentiation
Its name refers to a heightened potential
for neural firing (‘potentiation’) that lasts much longer than the initial stimulus. —– ——- ——-
Long Term Petentiation
even after the CS
is no longer present, cellular changes at the synapse are is called:
Long term potentiation
animals often learn not only the simple association between
a CS and a US, such as the association between a tone and shock, but also that being in the experimental
chamber (rather than their own cage) predicts shock. This additional learning is called
(
contextual learning
Several factors influence classical conditioning,
- Interstimulus interval between presenting CS and the UCS
- Degree to which the presence of the CS is predictive of the
US, the individual’s learning history (such as prior associations between the stimulus and other stimuli or
responses) and - prepared learning (the evolved tendency of some associations to be learned more readily
than others).
A key factor in determining whether or not extinction will occur is:
Select one:
a.
the passage of time
b.
whether punishment has been used during the learning trials or not
c.
the repeated presentation of the CS without the UCS
c. the repeated presentation of the CS without the UCS
A mother has been continually nagging her daughter about how messy her room is. Finally, the daughter gets so tired of her mother’s complaints that she cleans her room, thus stopping the nagging. Given that the withdrawal of the nagging strengthened the room cleaning behaviour, the nagging would be considered a(n):
Select one:
a.
Negative reinforcer
b.
Positive reinforcer
c.
Aversive Punishment
d.
Responsive cost punishment
a.
Negative reinforcer
n advantage of using operational definitions is that
Select one:
a.
Other researchers will usually agree with these definitions
b.
They let other researchers know exactly how variables have been manipulated or measured
c.
They automatically generate the relevant dependent and independent variables
d.
They are consistent with the law of parsimony
b.
They let other researchers know exactly how variables have been manipulated or measured
A(n) __________ defines a variable in terms of the specific procedures used to measure it
Select one:
a.
dependent variable
b.
independent variable
c.
operational definition
d.
archival measure
c.
operational definition
A(n) _______ is a formal set of statements that explains why and how certain events are related to one another
Select one:
a.
hypothesis
b.
specific prediction
c.
theory
d.
operational definition
c.
theory
—– ——- allows us to learn to associate consequences of behaviour. We learn to repeat behaviours that reward us and we learn to avoid behaviours with negative consequences.
Operant conditioning
The main difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning
Classical Conditioning pairs with the INVOLUNTARY reflexes, where as operant conditioning focuses on the voluntary or non relfexive resposnses
Reinforcers or punishers are ——– of the behaviour
consequences. They come after the behaviour
The Term “behaviourism” was coined by
John Watson
Behviourism was bourne out of john watsons desire to
make psychology a hard science
an animal’s tendency to reproduce a behaviour depends on that behaviour’s effect on the environment
and the consequent effect on the animal is known as
The law of effect
that behaviour is controlled by its consequences is the essence of the laW of:
EFFECT
Thorndike’s cat (PUZZLE BOX) exemplifies a second form of conditioning, known as
instrumental or operant conditioning. (because the behaviour is instrumental to achieving a more satisfying state of affairs.)
Operant condition is known by two names
Thorndike called it Instrumental conditioning and BF Skinner named it operant conditioning
means learning to operate on the environment to produce a consequence.
operant conditioning,
In ——– conditioning, an outside stimulus causes a reaction. In ——— conditioning, the organism’s behavior leads to a response from the environment.
In classical conditioning, an outside stimulus causes a reaction. In operant conditioning, the organism’s behavior leads to a response from the environment.
In operant conditioning the behaviour —— the environmental event that conditions ——– ———
precedes, future behaviour.
Operant vs. Classical Conditioning, whats the difference
Explanation: In operant conditioning, the behavior comes before the event that influences future behavior. In classical conditioning, it’s the other way around: an event triggers a response.
Back:
Details: In operant conditioning, actions lead to outcomes that affect future actions. In classical conditioning, a stimulus comes first and leads to a reaction.
The basic idea behind operant conditioning, then, is that
behaviour is controlled by its consequences.
There are two types of environmental consequence that produce operant conditioning:
reinforcement increases probability a response will occur,
and
punishment, which diminishes its likelihood.
refers to something in the environment that strengthens a behavior. It’s like a reward that comes after an action and makes the action more likely to happen again. There are two types: positive and negative.
Reinforcement
the process whereby presentation of a stimulus (a reward or pay-off) after
a behaviour makes the behaviour more likely to occur again.
Positive reinforcement
an environmental consequence that, when presented, strengthens the probability that a response will recur
positive reinforcer —
erroneously associate an operant and an environmental event, a phenomenon Skinner labelled
superstitious behaviour
environmental consequence can reinforce a behaviour,
eliminating an aversive consequence. This is known as
negative reinforcement
——– reinforcers are aversive or unpleasant stimuli that strengthen a behaviour by their removal.
Negative
Hitting the
snooze button on an alarm clock or cleaning the kitchen
to remove unpleasant sights, smells and whining by housemates are botje examples of
Negative reinforcement (aversive or unpleasant stimuli that strengthen a behaviour by their removal)
Negative reinforcement occurs in both —– learning and ——- learning
Escape and avoidance
Putting on aloe vera to treat a sunburn is an example of —— learning
escape
Putting on sunscreen so you dont get sunburnt is an example of —— learning
avoidance
——- decreases the probability that a behaviour will recur.
punishment
learner may have difficulty distinguishing. What is the problem with - People who yell at their dog for coming after it has been called several times already.
which operant is being punished? They are actually punishing good behaviour — coming when called. The dog is more likely to associate
the punishment with its action than its inaction — and is likely to adjust its behaviour accordingly, by
becoming even less likely to come when called!
Punishing one behavior, like stealing, can accidentally
reinforce lying
A problem associated with punishment is that the learner may come to fear the person meting out the punishment (via ——- conditioning) rather than the action (via ——conditioning).
Classical, operant
i.e. A child who is harshly punished by his father may become afraid of his father instead of
changing his behaviour.
aggression that is used to punish behaviour often leads to
further aggression
Study of other species in order to make informed inferances about the human species
Comparative research
if enough
conditioning trials pass in which the operant is not followed by the consequence previously associated
with it —— can occur
extinction
previously learned behaviour recurs
without renewed reinforcement
spontaneous recovery
behaviours that are emitted rather than elicited by the environment.
Operants
means learning to operate on the environment to produce a consequence.
Operant conditioning
the consequence is the same each time the animal emits a behaviour, is called
continuous reinforcement schedule
More typically, an action sometimes leads to reinforcement but other times does not. Such reinforcement
schedules are known as.
partial or intermittent schedules of reinforcement (because the behaviour is reinforced only part of the time, or intermittently)
continuous schedules would be more effective during the
the acquisition (initial learning) of a response
partial reinforcement is usually superior for maintaining ————- behaviour
learned behaviour
behaviours maintained under partial schedules are usually more resistant to ——
extinction
Intermittent reinforcement schedules may be either ——–schedules or ——- schedules
ratio, interval
pay-offs are tied to the number of responses emitted; only a
fraction of ‘correct’ behaviours receive reinforcement, such as one out of every five.
In ratio schedules of reinforcement,
rewards (or punishments) are delivered only after some interval
of time, no matter how many responses the organism emits.
interval schedules of reinforcement
n organism receives reinforcement for a fixed proportion of the responses
it emits.
fixed-ratio (FR) schedule
an animal receives a reward for some percentage of responses, but
the number of responses required before reinforcement is unpredictable
variable-ratio (VR) schedules,
an animal receives reinforcement for its responses only after a fixed amount of time.
fixed-interval (FI) schedule
an animal receives a reward for some percentage of responses, but the number of responses required before reinforcement is unpredictable
variable-ratio (VR) schedules
The way in which reinforcement is delivered is really important because it can actually
vary the behaviour response
Which reinforcement schedule means a behaviour has to be performed
Ratio
Which reinforcement schedule means a certain period of time must have elapsed
Interval
A fixed interval (FI) or fixed ratio (FR) means we know the
exact amount of time required
A variable reinforcement schedule means the reinforcement or reward is
unpredictable
this reinforcement schedule is the most common in daily life
Variable-ratio (VR) schedules
(For example, when fishing, you are not likely to be rewarded each time you cast your line into the water. However, on some occasions you will be)
———– schedules generally produce rapid, constant responding
Variable Ratio (VR)
which reinforcement schedule means the subject receives reinforcement for its responses only after a fixed
amount of time.
fixed-interval (FI) schedule
An animal on an FI schedule of reinforcement will ultimately learn to
stop responding except towards
the end of each interval (For example, workers whose boss comes by only at two o’clock are likely to relax the rest of the day)
this type of schedule ties reinforcement to an interval of time, but unlike a fixed-interval schedule, the subject cannot predict how long that time interval will be.
A variable-interval (VI) reinforcement schedule
(In the classroom, unexpected tests make similar use of VI schedules.)
—— ——– schedules are more effective than fixed-interval schedules in maintaining consistent performance.
Variable interval
i.e. pop quiz
Random, unannounced governmental inspections of working conditions in a factory are much
more effective in getting management to maintain safety standards - This is an example of
Variable Interval Ratios (VI)
much more effective than inspections at fixed intervals..
Professors receive a paycheque for lecturing to their classes, but if they lecture new acquaintances at a
cocktail party, the environmental consequences are not the same. a connection might exist between a behaviour and a consequence - This is an example of:
response contingency,
because the consequence is dependent, or contingent, on the behaviour
response contingencies (Circumstances under which different contingencies apply) might be different. A stimulus that signals the presence of particular contingencies of reinforcement is called a
discriminative stimulus (SD).
—— ———- is one of the keys to the complexity and flexibility of human and animal behaviour.
Stimulus discrimination
A discriminative stimulus signals that
particular contingencies of reinforcement are in effect, so that the organism only produces the behaviour:
in the presence of the discriminative stimulus.
Agression that is acceptable on the football feild compared to aggression that is acceptable in public is subject to
discriminative stimulus.
reinforcement is not infinite, and attaining one reinforcer may affect both its future availability
and the
availability of other reinforcers.
(Obtaining one reinforcer may also adversely affect the chances of obtaining another.)
The cost–benefit analysis involved in operant behaviour has led to an approach called ——- ——–, which weds aspects of behavioural theory with economics (
behavioural
economics
A prey animal going down to the waterhole at the same time as a lion, because they know the lion is well fed and will not feed or hunt again soon is an example of
behavioural economics
The risk is lower, so the reward is economical
existing behaviours often serve as the raw material for novel ones. This occurs as the environment
subtly refines them or links them together into sequences. This is called
shaping
———, produces novel behaviour by reinforcing closer
and closer approximations to the desired response.
shaping (The key is to begin by reinforcing a response the
animal can readily produce.)
——- ——— is the process of
rewarding those behaviours that resemble the desired behaviour to gradually move the subject progressively closer to the desired behaviour
successive approximations ( to produce the required shaping procedure.)
With humans, shaping occurs in all kinds of teaching. Psychologists have used shaping with considerable
success in helping autistic children with
speech and language
——— involves putting together a sequence of existing responses in a novel order
chaining
Many individuals with antisocial personality
disorder, who show a striking disregard for society’s standards, are relatively unresponsive to ————-.
to punishment.
(Their lack of anxiety when confronted with potential punishment renders them less likely to learn to control
behaviours that other people learn to inhibit )
Species-specific behaviour and preparedness happens because animals often do:
animals often do what comes naturally to them, even if we’re trying to teach them something else.
