Learning and Memory Flashcards
limbic system
involves emotions, learning, and memory
Hippo wearing a HAT:
Hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus
amygdala
responsible for emotional reactions, primal emotions
especially fear
part of limbic system
produces anger/violence and fear/anxiety
hypothalamus
responsible for maintaining homeostasis by controlling release of hormones to the pituitary glands
part of limbic system
command center for endocrine system
hippocampus
memory consolidation - converts short term to long term memory
-if destroyed will retain old memories but can’t make new ones
part of limbic system
located in the temporal lobe
cingulate gyrus
emotional sensory input
part of limbic system
thalamus
relays information, center for pain perception
everything you hear/taste ends up in thalamus
Smell bypasses the thalamus
associative learning
pairing two stimuli, behavior, or response
operant conditioning
pairing learning with rewards or punishments
positive reinforcement
adding something to reinforce the behavior
ex: candy for doing well on a test
negative reinforcement
taking something away to reinforce behavior
ex: child doesn’t have to do chores for getting good grades
positive punishment
adding something to stop the behavior
ex: scrubbing mouth with soap for saying bad word
negative punishment
removing something to stop behavior
ex: taking away phone
fixed ratio
a consequence happens after a consistent number of behaviors
fixed interval
reinforcement happens after a consistent amount of time
variable ratio
reinforcement occurs after a variable number of behaviors
variable interval
reinforcement occurs after a variable amount of times
primary reinforcers
something that is naturally rewarding
innate
secondary reinforcers
a learned reward
ex: money, good grades (positive) or speeding ticket, bad grades (negative)
classical conditioning
pairing an unconditioned stimuli (salivating) with a conditioned stimulus (ringing of a bell)
generalization
applying a specific situation/fear into something that applies to many other things
ex: being afraid of white mice and applying it to white beards, white cats, and white fur
discrimination
when a conditioned stimulus can apply to only one specific stimulus
ex: dog can distinguish between different pitches and only salivates to a specific pitch
acquisition
the actual pairing of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli
extinction
when something that was once paired no longer is paired
usually occurs after repeated exposure of the unconditioned without the conditioned
spontaneous recovery
something that was extinct suddenly becomes paired again
observational learning
learning through watching other’s interact
ex: booboo doll experiment
mirror neurons play an important role
latent learning
learning for the purpose of achieving something that will be rewarding in the future, but not at this exact moment
ex: putting in study time to get a good MCAT score
flashbulb memory
raw, emotional, important, distinct events that easily come to mind
vivid details, high confidence in recollection, not always accurate
implicit memory
unconscious memory; use previous experiences to guide your current/future decisions
procedural memory
implicit memory
something that can be done
ex: riding a bike
emotional memory
you remember the emotion
implicit memory
explicit memory
conscious memory which can be spoken about
we must work to remember these things
episodic memory
remember important episodes/events/experiences
explicit memory
semantic memory
explicit memory
facts, details, and information
sensory motor
the sensation that only lasts long enough to become short-term memory
working memory
short-lived; important for decision making
consists of the central executive and three lower subsystems: visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer
ex: memory I use while learning for the MCAT
habituation
repeated exposure to something, you become accustomed to it and decrease strength of response
dehabituation
recovery of response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred
sensitization
becoming more sensitive to stimuli
ex: becoming more aware of the buzzing; getting jumpy when someone walks in the door
desensitization
becoming accustomed to something that once make you jumpy
instinctive drift
when you revert back to your innate behavior even after having a learned behavior
spreading activation
personal experiences narrate your network of ideas
create categories in clumps of what we already know
ex: How I remember the events of the band explosion is remembering different details that will activate more nodes and create a spreading activation
depth of processing
the deeper the understanding, the more likely the information will be retained
serial position effect
remembering the beginning and end very well but forgetting the middle
visuospatial sketchpad
being able to recall information like having a picture in your brain
part of the working memory
recency effect
remembering things that come more recently
primary effect
first impressions shape what comes after
retrograde interference
the new information interferes with remembering the old
proactive interference
the old information makes you forget the new information
continuity theory
people who have been doing things for a while want to remain that way, they don’t often change their position
left brain
analytics, mathematics, language, right side of the body, reason, science
right brain
design, art, music, passion, creativity, left side of the body, organization, facial recognition
corpus callosum
connects the left and right hemisphere of the brain
when it is cut; if you see something in the left visual space the right hemisphere of the brain will process it. You will be able to draw what you see with your right hand, but not be able to speak what you see
frontal lobe
decision making
voluntary motor
executive functions
parietal lobe
includes the somatosensory cortex
proprioception
proprioception
awareness of position and movement of the body
Temporal lobe
includes wernicke area
learning, memory, auditory processing
occipital lobe
visual processing
central executive
part of working memory
controls the lower subsystems
regulates attention and task switching
visuospatial sketchpad
part of working memory
manipulating visual and spatial information
ex: when reading a map
phonological loop
part of working memory
manipulating spoken and written information
ex: when reading a book
episodic buffer
part of working memory temporal processing (knowing timeline) and integrating information from long-term to working memory
prefrontal cortex
responsible for executive functions (attention, inhibition, working memory, mental flexibility)
does not reach maturity until age 25
Law of closure
taking an incomplete figure but perceiving it as whole
Law of Similarity
perceiving that similar things (color, property) are grouped together
Law of proximity
objects close together are perceived as being grouped
Pragnanz
multiple objects as forming organized objects and patterns
Stroop effect
when different pieces of information are presented which make it hard for an individual to reconcile
ex: colored words printed in a different color
LTP
long term potentiation
this occurs when neurons are repeatedly stimulated usually by increased NT or increased # of receptors
state dependent memories
memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual’s internal state is the same as when the memory was encoded
tonic receptors
continue to produce an action potential throughout the duration of the stimulus
this only occurs in the PNS
neuroplasticity
lasting changes in the brain that occur when interactions with environment alter neurons and/ot pathways
refers to LTP and LTD
synaptic plasticity
changes of firing rate at the pre-synaptic neuron will alter the amount of NT released
structural plasticity
sprouting, rerouting, and pruning
this does not happen quickly
ablation
removal or destruction of tissue
ablation of hippocampus
removal of tissue from the hippocampus will result in anterograde amnesia (can’t make new memories)
What parts of the brain are sensitive to stress hormones?
hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and amygdala
The chronic stress will decrease dendritic branching in coping mechanisms, increase inflammation which inhibits learning and memory, and alters neurons which leads to more fear, anxiety, and anger.
crystallized intelligence
ability to apply facts and acquired knowledge to situations
increases with age
ex: biology and chemistry sections of the test
fluid intelligence
ability to apply logic and creative thinking to new situations without prior knowledge
declines with age
ex: CARS section
selective attention
ability to focus on one stimulus or task despite distractions
doing a practice quiz, giving it my undivided attention
divided attention
doing 2 or more things at once
usually end up switching between tasks rather than doing them simultaneously
watching a movie and playing a game
intelligence
ability to learn and apply new information and skills, adapt to the environment, and reason through complex situations
attentions
cognitive process that filters some sensory inputs in order to focus on others
Recall
retrieval of information from memory
ex: fill in the blank test
Recognition
identification of previously learned information
ex: multiple choice
Relearning
re-encoding of learned but forgotten information
ex: me studying physics
Free recall
remembering something without a hint
cued recall
remembering something with a hint
immediate recall
remembering something directly after you learn it
delayed recall
remembering something after some time has passed
escape learning
part of negative reinforcement
current undesirable stimulus is removed
ex: teenager knows that faking an illness can help them “escape” doing the dishes
avoidance learning
part of negative reinforcement
future undesirable stimulus prevented
ex: teenager stays late at school to avoid evening chores
memory construction
process of recreating a memory reach time it is recalled, instead of copied
this leads to potential mistakes in remembering
source monitoring error
inaccurately remembering source of information
ex: giving credit to Dad when it is Taylor’s funny joke
negative priming
impaired processing (slower response and reduced accuracy) that occurs when stimulus is originally ignored and later attended to
hidden curriculum
implicit, unofficial information conveyed through educational system
ex: boys better at math than girls
formal curriculum
explicit, official information conveyed through educational system
ex: physics, chemistry, algebra
basal ganglia
caudate putamen and globus pallidus - cerebrum
substantia nigra - midbrain
subthalamic nucleus - diencephalon
selection and execution of voluntary motor programs
regulates motor and premotor cortical areas
nucleus accumbens
part of reward pathway
works with VTA
receives input from dopamine
Ventral Tegmental Area
creates dopamine
targeted by opiate drugs
What does hypothalamus regulate
body temperature, growth metabolism, blood pressure, appetite, and sleep
exogenous cues
bright colors, loud noises, pop-out effect
things we automatically see and don’t have to tell ourselves to look for
endogenous cues
ex: cocktail party effect
requires internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it
cocktail party effect
ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd
inattentional blindness
we aren’t always aware of things that are not in our direct visual field
change blindness
failure to notice changes in environment
ex: when I failed to notice the sticker on Taylor’s car for about a month
Broadbent’s Early Selection Theory
information from environment goes into sensory register and transferred to selective filter. Filters out unnecessary information and finally perceptually processes identify friend’s voice and assigns meaning
however, doesn’t account for how during cocktail party effect, you can still hear your name
Deutch & Deutch’s Late Selection Theory
sensory information is registered then goes to perceptual process and then is selectively filtered
filtering of information is decided upon by conscious awareness
however, doesn’t seem like a good idea if you have to process every single thing that comes through
Treisman’s Attenuation Theory
instead of complete selective filter - have attenuator
weakens but doesn’t eliminate input from unattended ear
some things get perceptual processes so assigned meaning but not high priority until something important comes through
ex: when I listen to Lab Meetings I still hear everything but don’t place high importance until I hear my name and then start actively listening for what they want me to do
Task similarity
listening to classical music without word while writing a paper
task difficulty
harder tasks require more focus
driving while texting isn’t a good idea
driving while listening to music isn’t bad
central executive role
coordinates visual and verbal information
stored in episodic buffer to become long term memory
phonological loop
processes verbal information - any words or numbers in both iconic or echoic memory
Iconic memory
what you see, lasts half a second
echoic
what you hear, lasts 3-4 seconds
method of Loci
imagine moving through a familiar place and in each place leaving a visual representation of the topic to be remembered
Rote rehearsal
say things over and over again
least effective way of remembering
chunking
grouping information into meaningful categories that are already known
mnemonic devices
using imagery, pegwords (ex: 1 is gun; rhymes and catchy), method of loci (places represent informational areas), or acronyms
self-referencing
thinking about new information and relating to your personally
teach someone else the information
spacing
spreading out studying to shorter periods
Retrieval cues
priming: hearing word apple and then asked to say word that begins with a
context: testing in the same area you learned
state dependent memory
if you learn something while you are drunk, you’ll remember it the next time you are drunk
Free recall
no cues in recalling
cued recall
give you “pl” for planet
recognition
best type of recall
present 2 words and say which one you’ve heard
Types of memory that improve with age
semantic memory - facts and verbal skills
crystallized IQ - ability to use knowledge and experience
emotional reasoning
Types of memory that decline with age
recall, episodic memories (forming new memories is difficult, old memories are stable), processing speed, and divided attention
prospective memory (remembering to do things in the future)
What types of memory remain stable throughout life?
implicit memory (procedural) and recognition
Alzheimer’s Disease
loss of memory, attention, planning, semantic memory, and abstract thinking
unknown cause but potentially amyloid plaque or beta tangles
Korsakoff’s Syndrome
caused by lack of B1 or thiamine
thiamine converts carbohydrates into glucose cells needed for energy –> important for neurons
retrograde amnesia
can’t remember anything previously encoded
anterograde amnesia
inability to encode new memories
broca’s area
located in the frontal lobe
responsible for language production
when damaged will affect language production but not understanding language
wernicke’s area
understanding language
located in temporal lobe
when damaged can repeat words but can’t make sense of them and can’t produce a coherent sentence
global aphasia
damage to both broca and wernicke’s area
conduction aphasia
ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted
agraphia
inability to write
anomia
inability to name things
cerebral cortex
positive emotions evoked on left side
negative emotions evoked on right side
physiological component of emotions
when surprised - HR increases, muscles tense, temperature rises
information processing model
equate input and processing of information into human memory like computer memory
take in info using sensory memory
stored in short term or working memory
working memory can become stored as long term memory
barriers to effective problem solving
inappropriate mental sets and biases
mental set
tendency to treat new problems with solutions that have previously worked
ex: dealing with Taylor’s problems the same way I would treat quinn’s problems even though they are two very different people
functional fixedness
fixation on using an object for its intended function without recognizing other uses
ex: quinn making sure to use the thing for homework in a specific way and not recognizing there are multiple ways to go about it.
My way or the highway; only one correct answer
Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence
intelligence divided into three components: analytical, creative, and practical intelligence
mesolimbic pathway
reward pathway
connects midbrain to forebrain
releases dopamine in response to rewarding stimulus
nigrostriatal bundle
associated with movement
loss of neurons in this area is associated with Parkinson’s disease
encoding
putting new information into memory
can include active memorization, automatic processing
semantic > acoustic > visual encoding
automatic processing
passively gaining information from stimuli without effort
elaboration rehearsal
associate information to knowledge already in long-term memory
ex: as I study, I am using elaboration rehearsal to continually add knowledge to things I already know
self-reference effect
better recall when information can be contextualized to self
ex: linking visuospatial sketchpad to being able to see mineral king in my head, or doing mental math
semantic encoding
involves encoding sensory information with specific relevance to the person (phrase, word, image, event, etc) that can be applied to an particular situation
does not include sound, taste, etc
includes facts and details
acoustic encoding
encoding sounds (language, music, etc)
use echoic memory to recall auditory information
tactile encoding
use of tactile senses
recall how something feels physically
visual encoding
processing and encoding of images and other visual information
ex: pictures of someone’s face, a specific place
will be stored in our iconic memory
mnemonic
any method used to improve one’s ability to recall information through the use of vocal repetition
sensory memory
recall of sensory information
quick and short term
ex: touching a pan on the stove, you will remember it is hot
echoic memory
type of sensory memory where you remember sounds
very brief, lasts only about 4 seconds
ex: specific chirping of birds
iconic memory
type of sensory memory where you remember an image
doesn’t last a full second
ex: color of stranger’s eyes
short term memory
lasts about 20 seconds
ex: trying to remember someone’s address long enough to type it into your GPS
working memory
subset of short term memory which refers to the immediate processing of events and linguistics
ex: type of memory I use when trying to remember all these definitions
long term meory
memory that can last indefinitely
ex: remembering my birthdate, or taylor’s face
declarative memory
explicit memory
information that can easily be said aloud and explained to someone
ex: singing the words of a song
procedural memory
implicit memory
memorization of how to complete a task
ex: driving a car or riding a bike
episodic memory
memories surrounding a specific (usually important or meaningful) event
ex: remembering where I heard that Tomas had died
semantic memory
remembering facts
ex: that mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell
autobiographical memory
collection of memories that we collect about ourselves over a lifetime
ex: include previous partners, emotions, details of events
retrospective memory
looking into the past
used when learning about historical events
include episodic, semantic, declarative, and autobiographical memories
prospective memory
refers to memories that must be had in the future
ex: reminding myself to buy cucumbers when I go to the grocery store
semantic networks
frame networks
neural networks that connect ideas together and bring a sense of unity to concepts
ex: when I learned metabolism in chunks and then finally put it all together
nodes
specific ideas/events that we remember
various associations connect nodes
some of these nodes are remembered frequently so strong and others are rarely called upon
ex: thinking of Miranda, connects me to currant halls, which makes me think of Nico
serial recall
remembering a list of words or events in the list that it comes in
ex: remembering numbers in that specific list
mood-dependent memory
when information is learned while someone is experiencing a certain emotion is most easily remembered when the person is experiencing that emotion again
ex: when I’m feeling sad, I tend to think about all the other sad things that are happening
When does short-term memory begin to decline
usually around the age of 60
often struggle with free recall
What information is likely to remain solid even in older age?
important and meaningful information (episodic) and procedural information
retention interval
time since something was learned
Decay theory
if long-term memories are not recalled often, it will become harder and harder (if not impossible) to remember them
positive transfer
when old information helps someone learn new information
ex: like already knowing how to perform surgery on mice will make it easier to perform surgery on humans
schema
overall framework of how we remember something (structure and components of situation, details)
schemas can skew information
ex: being asked to recall a doctor’s office you went to as a child. You know based on experience that there are tongue depressors and paper tissues, etc. So you can fill that in to your story even if you don’t accurately remember them being there
misinformation effect
when someone tells you false information and you create false memories because of it
imagination inflation
occurs when certain memories are either constructed or exaggerated by the person’s imagination
this can create false memories
ex: when you exaggerate your role in a story or insert yourself doing something you actually didn’t
Neural plasticity
brain’s ability to adapt according to various environments, behaviors and emotions, plus new synaptic processes
compensatory masquerade
type of neural plasticity
when a certain brain path is injured, the brain will find a different path or different cognitive process to complete that same task
cross-modal reassignment
if the brain lacks main inputs, it can adapt when new inputs are inserted
map expansion
type of neural plasticity
information processing to a specific region of the brain can be heightened if we increase frequency of stimulus/new information
ex: area of the brain dealing with math can become heightened after we take a calculus class
homologous area adaption
type of neural plasticity
if a particular brain area becomes damaged, early enough in development our brain can compensate and have another area of the brain take up those activities/responsibilities
neurogenesis
birth of new neurons
new neurons can grow in the hippocampus and cerebellum
At what age do we form reliable memories?
by the age of three
anything before the age of three is unreliable and susceptible to infantile amnesia
as we grow up, the inter-connectivity between neurons strengthens aka synapses
mirror neurons
neurons that fire whether you are performing the activity or watching the activity
responsible for empathy - if you see someone hurting, you also hurt
vicarious emotion
feeling what others feeling even if you don’t share it
ex: seeing someone wakeboard, I think that would be fun even though I’ve never done it
why we say “I want to live vicariously through you: - they are saying they want to feel what you feel
empathy
feeling an emotion that you share
ex: I am empathetic towards Duclinea because we both know what it is like to be dumped
