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Psychology/Sociology - MCAT > Learning and Memory > Flashcards

Learning and Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

limbic system

A

involves emotions, learning, and memory

Hippo wearing a HAT:
Hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus

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2
Q

amygdala

A

responsible for emotional reactions, primal emotions
especially fear

part of limbic system

produces anger/violence and fear/anxiety

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3
Q

hypothalamus

A

responsible for maintaining homeostasis by controlling release of hormones to the pituitary glands

part of limbic system

command center for endocrine system

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4
Q

hippocampus

A

memory consolidation - converts short term to long term memory

-if destroyed will retain old memories but can’t make new ones

part of limbic system

located in the temporal lobe

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5
Q

cingulate gyrus

A

emotional sensory input

part of limbic system

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6
Q

thalamus

A

relays information, center for pain perception

everything you hear/taste ends up in thalamus
Smell bypasses the thalamus

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7
Q

associative learning

A

pairing two stimuli, behavior, or response

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8
Q

operant conditioning

A

pairing learning with rewards or punishments

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9
Q

positive reinforcement

A

adding something to reinforce the behavior

ex: candy for doing well on a test

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10
Q

negative reinforcement

A

taking something away to reinforce behavior

ex: child doesn’t have to do chores for getting good grades

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11
Q

positive punishment

A

adding something to stop the behavior

ex: scrubbing mouth with soap for saying bad word

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12
Q

negative punishment

A

removing something to stop behavior

ex: taking away phone

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13
Q

fixed ratio

A

a consequence happens after a consistent number of behaviors

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14
Q

fixed interval

A

reinforcement happens after a consistent amount of time

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15
Q

variable ratio

A

reinforcement occurs after a variable number of behaviors

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16
Q

variable interval

A

reinforcement occurs after a variable amount of times

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17
Q

primary reinforcers

A

something that is naturally rewarding

innate

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18
Q

secondary reinforcers

A

a learned reward

ex: money, good grades (positive) or speeding ticket, bad grades (negative)

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19
Q

classical conditioning

A

pairing an unconditioned stimuli (salivating) with a conditioned stimulus (ringing of a bell)

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20
Q

generalization

A

applying a specific situation/fear into something that applies to many other things
ex: being afraid of white mice and applying it to white beards, white cats, and white fur

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21
Q

discrimination

A

when a conditioned stimulus can apply to only one specific stimulus
ex: dog can distinguish between different pitches and only salivates to a specific pitch

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22
Q

acquisition

A

the actual pairing of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli

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23
Q

extinction

A

when something that was once paired no longer is paired

usually occurs after repeated exposure of the unconditioned without the conditioned

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24
Q

spontaneous recovery

A

something that was extinct suddenly becomes paired again

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25
Q

observational learning

A

learning through watching other’s interact
ex: booboo doll experiment
mirror neurons play an important role

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26
Q

latent learning

A

learning for the purpose of achieving something that will be rewarding in the future, but not at this exact moment
ex: putting in study time to get a good MCAT score

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27
Q

flashbulb memory

A

raw, emotional, important, distinct events that easily come to mind
vivid details, high confidence in recollection, not always accurate

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28
Q

implicit memory

A

unconscious memory; use previous experiences to guide your current/future decisions

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29
Q

procedural memory

A

implicit memory
something that can be done
ex: riding a bike

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30
Q

emotional memory

A

you remember the emotion

implicit memory

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31
Q

explicit memory

A

conscious memory which can be spoken about

we must work to remember these things

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32
Q

episodic memory

A

remember important episodes/events/experiences

explicit memory

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33
Q

semantic memory

A

explicit memory

facts, details, and information

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34
Q

sensory motor

A

the sensation that only lasts long enough to become short-term memory

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35
Q

working memory

A

short-lived; important for decision making
consists of the central executive and three lower subsystems: visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer

ex: memory I use while learning for the MCAT

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36
Q

habituation

A

repeated exposure to something, you become accustomed to it and decrease strength of response

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37
Q

dehabituation

A

recovery of response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred

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38
Q

sensitization

A

becoming more sensitive to stimuli

ex: becoming more aware of the buzzing; getting jumpy when someone walks in the door

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39
Q

desensitization

A

becoming accustomed to something that once make you jumpy

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40
Q

instinctive drift

A

when you revert back to your innate behavior even after having a learned behavior

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41
Q

spreading activation

A

personal experiences narrate your network of ideas
create categories in clumps of what we already know

ex: How I remember the events of the band explosion is remembering different details that will activate more nodes and create a spreading activation

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42
Q

depth of processing

A

the deeper the understanding, the more likely the information will be retained

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43
Q

serial position effect

A

remembering the beginning and end very well but forgetting the middle

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44
Q

visuospatial sketchpad

A

being able to recall information like having a picture in your brain
part of the working memory

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45
Q

recency effect

A

remembering things that come more recently

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46
Q

primary effect

A

first impressions shape what comes after

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47
Q

retrograde interference

A

the new information interferes with remembering the old

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48
Q

proactive interference

A

the old information makes you forget the new information

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49
Q

continuity theory

A

people who have been doing things for a while want to remain that way, they don’t often change their position

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50
Q

left brain

A

analytics, mathematics, language, right side of the body, reason, science

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51
Q

right brain

A

design, art, music, passion, creativity, left side of the body, organization, facial recognition

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52
Q

corpus callosum

A

connects the left and right hemisphere of the brain
when it is cut; if you see something in the left visual space the right hemisphere of the brain will process it. You will be able to draw what you see with your right hand, but not be able to speak what you see

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53
Q

frontal lobe

A

decision making
voluntary motor
executive functions

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54
Q

parietal lobe

A

includes the somatosensory cortex

proprioception

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55
Q

proprioception

A

awareness of position and movement of the body

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56
Q

Temporal lobe

A

includes wernicke area

learning, memory, auditory processing

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57
Q

occipital lobe

A

visual processing

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58
Q

central executive

A

part of working memory
controls the lower subsystems
regulates attention and task switching

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59
Q

visuospatial sketchpad

A

part of working memory
manipulating visual and spatial information
ex: when reading a map

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60
Q

phonological loop

A

part of working memory
manipulating spoken and written information
ex: when reading a book

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61
Q

episodic buffer

A 
part of working memory
temporal processing (knowing timeline) and integrating information from long-term to working memory
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62
Q

prefrontal cortex

A

responsible for executive functions (attention, inhibition, working memory, mental flexibility)
does not reach maturity until age 25

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63
Q

Law of closure

A

taking an incomplete figure but perceiving it as whole

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64
Q

Law of Similarity

A

perceiving that similar things (color, property) are grouped together

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65
Q

Law of proximity

A

objects close together are perceived as being grouped

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66
Q

Pragnanz

A

multiple objects as forming organized objects and patterns

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67
Q

Stroop effect

A

when different pieces of information are presented which make it hard for an individual to reconcile

ex: colored words printed in a different color

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68
Q

LTP

A

long term potentiation

this occurs when neurons are repeatedly stimulated usually by increased NT or increased # of receptors

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69
Q

state dependent memories

A

memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual’s internal state is the same as when the memory was encoded

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70
Q

tonic receptors

A

continue to produce an action potential throughout the duration of the stimulus
this only occurs in the PNS

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71
Q

neuroplasticity

A

lasting changes in the brain that occur when interactions with environment alter neurons and/ot pathways
refers to LTP and LTD

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72
Q

synaptic plasticity

A

changes of firing rate at the pre-synaptic neuron will alter the amount of NT released

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73
Q

structural plasticity

A

sprouting, rerouting, and pruning

this does not happen quickly

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74
Q

ablation

A

removal or destruction of tissue

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75
Q

ablation of hippocampus

A

removal of tissue from the hippocampus will result in anterograde amnesia (can’t make new memories)

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76
Q

What parts of the brain are sensitive to stress hormones?

A

hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and amygdala

The chronic stress will decrease dendritic branching in coping mechanisms, increase inflammation which inhibits learning and memory, and alters neurons which leads to more fear, anxiety, and anger.

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77
Q

crystallized intelligence

A

ability to apply facts and acquired knowledge to situations
increases with age

ex: biology and chemistry sections of the test

78
Q

fluid intelligence

A

ability to apply logic and creative thinking to new situations without prior knowledge
declines with age

ex: CARS section

79
Q

selective attention

A

ability to focus on one stimulus or task despite distractions

doing a practice quiz, giving it my undivided attention

80
Q

divided attention

A

doing 2 or more things at once
usually end up switching between tasks rather than doing them simultaneously

watching a movie and playing a game

81
Q

intelligence

A

ability to learn and apply new information and skills, adapt to the environment, and reason through complex situations

82
Q

attentions

A

cognitive process that filters some sensory inputs in order to focus on others

83
Q

Recall

A

retrieval of information from memory

ex: fill in the blank test

84
Q

Recognition

A

identification of previously learned information

ex: multiple choice

85
Q

Relearning

A

re-encoding of learned but forgotten information

ex: me studying physics

86
Q

Free recall

A

remembering something without a hint

87
Q

cued recall

A

remembering something with a hint

88
Q

immediate recall

A

remembering something directly after you learn it

89
Q

delayed recall

A

remembering something after some time has passed

90
Q

escape learning

A

part of negative reinforcement
current undesirable stimulus is removed

ex: teenager knows that faking an illness can help them “escape” doing the dishes

91
Q

avoidance learning

A

part of negative reinforcement
future undesirable stimulus prevented

ex: teenager stays late at school to avoid evening chores

92
Q

memory construction

A

process of recreating a memory reach time it is recalled, instead of copied

this leads to potential mistakes in remembering

93
Q

source monitoring error

A

inaccurately remembering source of information

ex: giving credit to Dad when it is Taylor’s funny joke

94
Q

negative priming

A

impaired processing (slower response and reduced accuracy) that occurs when stimulus is originally ignored and later attended to

95
Q

hidden curriculum

A

implicit, unofficial information conveyed through educational system

ex: boys better at math than girls

96
Q

formal curriculum

A

explicit, official information conveyed through educational system

ex: physics, chemistry, algebra

97
Q

basal ganglia

A

caudate putamen and globus pallidus - cerebrum
substantia nigra - midbrain
subthalamic nucleus - diencephalon

selection and execution of voluntary motor programs
regulates motor and premotor cortical areas

98
Q

nucleus accumbens

A

part of reward pathway
works with VTA
receives input from dopamine

99
Q

Ventral Tegmental Area

A

creates dopamine

targeted by opiate drugs

100
Q

What does hypothalamus regulate

A

body temperature, growth metabolism, blood pressure, appetite, and sleep

101
Q

exogenous cues

A

bright colors, loud noises, pop-out effect

things we automatically see and don’t have to tell ourselves to look for

102
Q

endogenous cues

A

ex: cocktail party effect

requires internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it

103
Q

cocktail party effect

A

ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd

104
Q

inattentional blindness

A

we aren’t always aware of things that are not in our direct visual field

105
Q

change blindness

A

failure to notice changes in environment

ex: when I failed to notice the sticker on Taylor’s car for about a month

106
Q

Broadbent’s Early Selection Theory

A

information from environment goes into sensory register and transferred to selective filter. Filters out unnecessary information and finally perceptually processes identify friend’s voice and assigns meaning

however, doesn’t account for how during cocktail party effect, you can still hear your name

107
Q

Deutch & Deutch’s Late Selection Theory

A

sensory information is registered then goes to perceptual process and then is selectively filtered

filtering of information is decided upon by conscious awareness

however, doesn’t seem like a good idea if you have to process every single thing that comes through

108
Q

Treisman’s Attenuation Theory

A

instead of complete selective filter - have attenuator

weakens but doesn’t eliminate input from unattended ear
some things get perceptual processes so assigned meaning but not high priority until something important comes through

ex: when I listen to Lab Meetings I still hear everything but don’t place high importance until I hear my name and then start actively listening for what they want me to do

109
Q

Task similarity

A

listening to classical music without word while writing a paper

110
Q

task difficulty

A

harder tasks require more focus
driving while texting isn’t a good idea
driving while listening to music isn’t bad

111
Q

central executive role

A

coordinates visual and verbal information

stored in episodic buffer to become long term memory

112
Q

phonological loop

A

processes verbal information - any words or numbers in both iconic or echoic memory

113
Q

Iconic memory

A

what you see, lasts half a second

114
Q

echoic

A

what you hear, lasts 3-4 seconds

115
Q

method of Loci

A

imagine moving through a familiar place and in each place leaving a visual representation of the topic to be remembered

116
Q

Rote rehearsal

A

say things over and over again

least effective way of remembering

117
Q

chunking

A

grouping information into meaningful categories that are already known

118
Q

mnemonic devices

A

using imagery, pegwords (ex: 1 is gun; rhymes and catchy), method of loci (places represent informational areas), or acronyms

119
Q

self-referencing

A

thinking about new information and relating to your personally

teach someone else the information

120
Q

spacing

A

spreading out studying to shorter periods

121
Q

Retrieval cues

A

priming: hearing word apple and then asked to say word that begins with a
context: testing in the same area you learned

122
Q

state dependent memory

A

if you learn something while you are drunk, you’ll remember it the next time you are drunk

123
Q

Free recall

A

no cues in recalling

124
Q

cued recall

A

give you “pl” for planet

125
Q

recognition

A

best type of recall

present 2 words and say which one you’ve heard

126
Q

Types of memory that improve with age

A

semantic memory - facts and verbal skills
crystallized IQ - ability to use knowledge and experience
emotional reasoning

127
Q

Types of memory that decline with age

A

recall, episodic memories (forming new memories is difficult, old memories are stable), processing speed, and divided attention

prospective memory (remembering to do things in the future)

128
Q

What types of memory remain stable throughout life?

A

implicit memory (procedural) and recognition

129
Q

Alzheimer’s Disease

A

loss of memory, attention, planning, semantic memory, and abstract thinking

unknown cause but potentially amyloid plaque or beta tangles

130
Q

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

A

caused by lack of B1 or thiamine

thiamine converts carbohydrates into glucose cells needed for energy –> important for neurons

131
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

can’t remember anything previously encoded

132
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

inability to encode new memories

133
Q

broca’s area

A

located in the frontal lobe
responsible for language production

when damaged will affect language production but not understanding language

134
Q

wernicke’s area

A

understanding language
located in temporal lobe

when damaged can repeat words but can’t make sense of them and can’t produce a coherent sentence

135
Q

global aphasia

A

damage to both broca and wernicke’s area

136
Q

conduction aphasia

A

ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted

137
Q

agraphia

A

inability to write

138
Q

anomia

A

inability to name things

139
Q

cerebral cortex

A

positive emotions evoked on left side

negative emotions evoked on right side

140
Q

physiological component of emotions

A

when surprised - HR increases, muscles tense, temperature rises

141
Q

information processing model

A

equate input and processing of information into human memory like computer memory

take in info using sensory memory
stored in short term or working memory
working memory can become stored as long term memory

142
Q

barriers to effective problem solving

A

inappropriate mental sets and biases

143
Q

mental set

A

tendency to treat new problems with solutions that have previously worked

ex: dealing with Taylor’s problems the same way I would treat quinn’s problems even though they are two very different people

144
Q

functional fixedness

A

fixation on using an object for its intended function without recognizing other uses

ex: quinn making sure to use the thing for homework in a specific way and not recognizing there are multiple ways to go about it.

My way or the highway; only one correct answer

145
Q

Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence

A

intelligence divided into three components: analytical, creative, and practical intelligence

146
Q

mesolimbic pathway

A

reward pathway
connects midbrain to forebrain
releases dopamine in response to rewarding stimulus

147
Q

nigrostriatal bundle

A

associated with movement

loss of neurons in this area is associated with Parkinson’s disease

148
Q

encoding

A

putting new information into memory

can include active memorization, automatic processing

semantic > acoustic > visual encoding

149
Q

automatic processing

A

passively gaining information from stimuli without effort

150
Q

elaboration rehearsal

A

associate information to knowledge already in long-term memory

ex: as I study, I am using elaboration rehearsal to continually add knowledge to things I already know

151
Q

self-reference effect

A

better recall when information can be contextualized to self

ex: linking visuospatial sketchpad to being able to see mineral king in my head, or doing mental math

152
Q

semantic encoding

A

involves encoding sensory information with specific relevance to the person (phrase, word, image, event, etc) that can be applied to an particular situation

does not include sound, taste, etc

includes facts and details

153
Q

acoustic encoding

A

encoding sounds (language, music, etc)

use echoic memory to recall auditory information

154
Q

tactile encoding

A

use of tactile senses

recall how something feels physically

155
Q

visual encoding

A

processing and encoding of images and other visual information

ex: pictures of someone’s face, a specific place

will be stored in our iconic memory

156
Q

mnemonic

A

any method used to improve one’s ability to recall information through the use of vocal repetition

157
Q

sensory memory

A

recall of sensory information

quick and short term

ex: touching a pan on the stove, you will remember it is hot

158
Q

echoic memory

A

type of sensory memory where you remember sounds

very brief, lasts only about 4 seconds

ex: specific chirping of birds

159
Q

iconic memory

A

type of sensory memory where you remember an image

doesn’t last a full second

ex: color of stranger’s eyes

160
Q

short term memory

A

lasts about 20 seconds

ex: trying to remember someone’s address long enough to type it into your GPS

161
Q

working memory

A

subset of short term memory which refers to the immediate processing of events and linguistics

ex: type of memory I use when trying to remember all these definitions

162
Q

long term meory

A

memory that can last indefinitely

ex: remembering my birthdate, or taylor’s face

163
Q

declarative memory

A

explicit memory

information that can easily be said aloud and explained to someone

ex: singing the words of a song

164
Q

procedural memory

A

implicit memory

memorization of how to complete a task

ex: driving a car or riding a bike

165
Q

episodic memory

A

memories surrounding a specific (usually important or meaningful) event

ex: remembering where I heard that Tomas had died

166
Q

semantic memory

A

remembering facts

ex: that mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell

167
Q

autobiographical memory

A

collection of memories that we collect about ourselves over a lifetime

ex: include previous partners, emotions, details of events

168
Q

retrospective memory

A

looking into the past

used when learning about historical events

include episodic, semantic, declarative, and autobiographical memories

169
Q

prospective memory

A

refers to memories that must be had in the future

ex: reminding myself to buy cucumbers when I go to the grocery store

170
Q

semantic networks

A

frame networks

neural networks that connect ideas together and bring a sense of unity to concepts

ex: when I learned metabolism in chunks and then finally put it all together

171
Q

nodes

A

specific ideas/events that we remember
various associations connect nodes

some of these nodes are remembered frequently so strong and others are rarely called upon

ex: thinking of Miranda, connects me to currant halls, which makes me think of Nico

172
Q

serial recall

A

remembering a list of words or events in the list that it comes in

ex: remembering numbers in that specific list

173
Q

mood-dependent memory

A

when information is learned while someone is experiencing a certain emotion is most easily remembered when the person is experiencing that emotion again

ex: when I’m feeling sad, I tend to think about all the other sad things that are happening

174
Q

When does short-term memory begin to decline

A

usually around the age of 60

often struggle with free recall

175
Q

What information is likely to remain solid even in older age?

A

important and meaningful information (episodic) and procedural information

176
Q

retention interval

A

time since something was learned

177
Q

Decay theory

A

if long-term memories are not recalled often, it will become harder and harder (if not impossible) to remember them

178
Q

positive transfer

A

when old information helps someone learn new information

ex: like already knowing how to perform surgery on mice will make it easier to perform surgery on humans

179
Q

schema

A

overall framework of how we remember something (structure and components of situation, details)

schemas can skew information

ex: being asked to recall a doctor’s office you went to as a child. You know based on experience that there are tongue depressors and paper tissues, etc. So you can fill that in to your story even if you don’t accurately remember them being there

180
Q

misinformation effect

A

when someone tells you false information and you create false memories because of it

181
Q

imagination inflation

A

occurs when certain memories are either constructed or exaggerated by the person’s imagination

this can create false memories

ex: when you exaggerate your role in a story or insert yourself doing something you actually didn’t

182
Q

Neural plasticity

A

brain’s ability to adapt according to various environments, behaviors and emotions, plus new synaptic processes

183
Q

compensatory masquerade

A

type of neural plasticity

when a certain brain path is injured, the brain will find a different path or different cognitive process to complete that same task

184
Q

cross-modal reassignment

A

if the brain lacks main inputs, it can adapt when new inputs are inserted

185
Q

map expansion

A

type of neural plasticity

information processing to a specific region of the brain can be heightened if we increase frequency of stimulus/new information

ex: area of the brain dealing with math can become heightened after we take a calculus class

186
Q

homologous area adaption

A

type of neural plasticity

if a particular brain area becomes damaged, early enough in development our brain can compensate and have another area of the brain take up those activities/responsibilities

187
Q

neurogenesis

A

birth of new neurons

new neurons can grow in the hippocampus and cerebellum

188
Q

At what age do we form reliable memories?

A

by the age of three

anything before the age of three is unreliable and susceptible to infantile amnesia

as we grow up, the inter-connectivity between neurons strengthens aka synapses

189
Q

mirror neurons

A

neurons that fire whether you are performing the activity or watching the activity

responsible for empathy - if you see someone hurting, you also hurt

190
Q

vicarious emotion

A

feeling what others feeling even if you don’t share it

ex: seeing someone wakeboard, I think that would be fun even though I’ve never done it

why we say “I want to live vicariously through you: - they are saying they want to feel what you feel

191
Q

empathy

A

feeling an emotion that you share

ex: I am empathetic towards Duclinea because we both know what it is like to be dumped

Psychology/Sociology - MCAT (12 decks)

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