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Psych Biology > Learning and Memory > Flashcards

Learning and Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Habituation

A

The process of becoming used to a stimulus

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2
Q

Dishabituation

A

Can occur when a second stimulus intervenes, causing a resensitization to the original stimulus

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3
Q

Associative Learning

A

A way of pairing together stimuli and responses, or behaviours and consequences. Includes Classical and Operant Conditioning

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4
Q

Observational learning or Modeling

A

The acquisition of behaviour or gaining information by watching others

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5
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

An unconditioned stimulus that produces an instinctive, unconditioned response is paired with a neutral stimulus.
With repetition, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that produces a conditioned response

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6
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

Links voluntary behaviours with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviours

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7
Q

Reinforcement

A

Increases the likelihood of behaviour

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8
Q

Punishment

A

Decreases the likelihood of a behaviour

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9
Q

What are different types of Schedules of Reinforcement

A

Ratio (of behaviour to reward) or interval (reward after amount of time), and fixed (guaranteed schedule) or variable.

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10
Q

Behaviours learned through which schedule have the fastest response rate and are most resistant to extinction

A

Variable-ratio schedules

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11
Q

Encoding

A

The process of putting new information into memory

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12
Q

Is semantic encoding stronger or acoustic/visual encoding

A

Semantic (visual is the weakest)

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13
Q

Working memory

A

Requires short-term memory, attention, and executive function to manipulate information (involves frontal and parietal lobes). Supported by the hippocampus

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14
Q

Long-term memory

A

Requires elaborative rehearsal and is the result of increased neuronal connectivity and comes in 2 forms

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15
Q

Explicit (declarative) memory

A

Consists of those memories that require conscious recall; further divided into semantic and episodic memory

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16
Q

Implicit (non-declarative) memory

A

Consists of our skills and conditioned responses

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17
Q

Extinction

A

If the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus enough times, the organism can become habituated to the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response disappears

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18
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

After some time, if extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again, a weak conditioned response can sometimes be exhibited

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19
Q

Generalization

A

A broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response

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20
Q

Discrimination

A

Opposite of generalization; an organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli

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21
Q

Behaviourism

A

The theory that all behaviours are conditioned; B.F Skinner considered the father of behaviourism

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22
Q

Adding a stimulus is called….

A

positive (used for reinforcement or punishment)

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23
Q

Removing a stimulus is called….

A

Negative (used for reinforcement or punishment)

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24
Q

Escape learning

A

The role of the behaviour is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists, like a headache.

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25
Q

Avoidance learning

A

Meant to prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen

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26
Q

Discriminative stimulus

A

Indicates that reward is potentially available in an operant conditioning paradigm

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27
Q

Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule

A

Reinforces a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behaviour

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28
Q

Continuous reinforcement

A

A fixed-ratio schedule in which the behaviour is rewarded every time it is performed

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29
Q

Variable-ratio (VR) schedule

A

Reinforces a behaviour after a varying number of performances of the behaviour, but such that the average number of performances to receive a reward is relatively constant

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30
Q

Fixed-interval (FI) schedule

A

Reinforces the first instance of a behaviour after a specified time period has elapsed

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31
Q

Variable-interval (VI) schedule

A

Reinforces a behaviour the first time that behaviour is performed after a varying interval of time.

32
Q

Shaping

A

The process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviours

33
Q

Latent learning

A

Learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced

34
Q

Preparedness

A

Predisposition to better learn behaviours that coincide with natural behaviours

35
Q

Instinctive drift

A

Difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviours

36
Q

Mirror neurons

A

Located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and fire both when an individual performs an action and when that individual observes someone else performing that action

37
Q

Automatic processing

A

When information is gained without effort

38
Q

Controlled (effortful) processing

A

Active memoriziation/learning

39
Q

Visual encoding

A

Encoding information by visualizing it

40
Q

Acoustic encouding

A

Encoding info by storing the way it sounds

41
Q

Semantic encoding

A

Storing info by putting it into a meaningful context

42
Q

Self-reference effect

A

We tend to recall info the best when can put it into the context of our own lives

43
Q

Maintenance rehearsal

A

The repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory (to prevent forgetting) or to store it in short-term and eventually long-term memory

44
Q

Method of loci

A

Involves associating each item in a list with a location along a route through a building that has already been memorized

45
Q

Peg-word system

A

Associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers

46
Q

Chunking/clustering

A

A memory trick that involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning.

47
Q

Sensory memory

A

First and most fleeting kind of memory storage, consists of both iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory

48
Q

Short-term memory

A

When we do pay attention do some of the info that we are exposed to; fades quickly, over the course of approximately 30 seconds without rehearsal. Also is limited in capacity to approximately seven items

49
Q

Where is short-term memory primarily housed?

A

The hippocampus, which is also responsible for consolidation of short-term memory into long-term memory

50
Q

What is one way that information is consolidated into long-term memory

A

Elaborative rehearsal

51
Q

Elaborative rehearsal

A

The association of the information to knowledge already stored in long-term memory

52
Q

Brain areas involved in long-term memory

A

Primarily controlled by the hippocampus, but over time memories are moved back to the cerebral cortex

53
Q

Semantic memory

A

Part of explicit memory which is facts that we know

54
Q

Episodic memory

A

Part of the explicit memory which is our experiences

55
Q

Retrieval

A

The name given to the process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained

56
Q

Recall

A

The retrieval and statement of previously learned information

57
Q

Recognition

A

The process of merely identifying a piece of info that was previously learned, is much easier than recall

58
Q

Relearning

A

Another way of demonstrating that information has been stored in long-term memory

59
Q

Spacing effect

A

The longer the amount of time between sessions of relearning, the greater the retention of the info later on

60
Q

How does the brain organize ideas?

A

Semantic network

61
Q

Semantic network

A

Concepts are linked together based on similar meaning

62
Q

Spreading activation

A

When one node of our semantic network is activated, the other linked concepts are also unconsciously activated

63
Q

Priming

A

Recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phase that is close to the desired semantic memory

64
Q

Context effects

A

Memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place

65
Q

State-dependent effect

A

Memory will be better for information learned when in a similar mood/internal state

66
Q

Serial position effect

A

A retrieval cue that appears while learning lists; participants have higher recall for both the first few and last few items on the list

67
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A

A degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to the hippocampus. Marked by progressive dementia, memory loss, atrophy of the brain, and proceeds in a retrograde fashion (loss of recent memories first)

68
Q

Biological components of Alzheimer’s

A

Neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques

69
Q

Sundowning

A

An increase in dysfunction in late afternoon and evening in individuals with middle to late stage Alzheimer’s

70
Q

Korsakoff’s syndrome

A

A form of memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency. Marked by both retrograde amnesia (loss of previously formed memories) and anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories). Another symptom is confabulation, which is the process of creating vivid but fabricated memories

71
Q

Agnosia

A

Loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds, though usually only one of the three. Usually caused by physical damage to the brain

72
Q

Interference

A

A retrieval error caused by existence of other, usually similar, information.

73
Q

Proactive interference

A

Old information is interfering with new learning

74
Q

Retroactive interference

A

New information causes forgetting of old information

75
Q

Does event-based prospective memory or time-based prospective memory decline more with age

A

Time-based prospective memory

76
Q

Source-monitoring error

A

Involves confusion between semantic and episodic memory: a person remembers the details of an event, but confuses the context under which those details were gained.

77
Q

What is the neurophysiological basis of long-term memory

A

Long-term potentiation, where when a stimulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and at the same time receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase, increasing receptor density.

Psych Biology (11 decks)

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