Learning and Memory Flashcards
Without rehearsal, information remains in short term memory for about how long?
20-30 seconds
A decrease in the effectiveness of punishment over time is often due to
habituation (becoming accustomed to it)
What is the storage capacity of short term memory that is also know as primary memory
Memory span ; the memory capacity is between 7 plus of minus 2 w/o chunking the information
What is responsible for processing and manipulating information that’s in the short term memory
working memory
(exp: this kind of memory allows you to mentally solve math problems)
This type of memory contains memories that have been stored from minutes to years
recent long term memory (secondary memory)
This type of memory contains memories that have been stored from years to decades
remote long term memory (tertiary memory)
What happens to transfer short term memory to long term memory
encoding
When asked to recall a list of words immediately, a person is likely to best remember words at the beginning, middle, or end of the list
beginning (in long term memory) and end (still in short term memory). This is displaying primacy and recency effects
When asked to recall a list of words after a brief delay, this person is likely to best remember words at the beginning, middle, or end of the list
Beginning (primacy effect)
This model of memory describes memory as consisting of three levels, what is it and what are the levels?
Multi-store model of memory ;
Sensory
Short term
Long term
Sensory memory is capable of storing large amounts of incoming sensory information…for how long?
very brief period of time. For visual (iconic) sensory memory about half a second. For auditory (echoic) sensory memory about 2 seconds
According to Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory, working memory consists of a central executive and 3 subsystems including a phonological loop, a visuospatial sketchpad and an episodic buffer. What do these subsystems do?
The central executive controls the subsystems and coordinates other cognitive processes
The phonological loop is responsible for temporary storage of verbal information
The visuospatial sketchpad is responsible for temporary story of visual and spatial info
The episodic buffer integrates verbal, visual, and spatial information and links working memory to long term memory
These types of memories are also called non-declarative memories and are memories of learned skills stored in long term memory
Procedural
(exp: riding a bike)
What are the two types of declarative memories (stored in long term memory)
semantic and episodic
Memories about facts, concepts, and other kinds of knowledge
semantic
Memories about things you’re personally experienced (autobiographical)
episodic
Memories for events that occurred in the past
retrospective memories
Memories for events that will occur in the future
Prospective memories
(exp: remembering you have a doctor’s appointment)
Memories that require conscious effort to retrieve; often used as a synonym for declarative memory which includes semantic and episodic memories
explicit
Memories that are recalled without conscious effort
implicit
Priming relies on what kind of memory. This explains how people with amnesia can perform similarly to individuals without amnesia on word-stem completion and word-fragment completion priming tasks
implicit
This occurs when exposure to a stimulus subsequently facilitates or inhibits a person’s response to the same or a similar stimulus
Priming
This theory, although not well supported by research, states that memories create physical changes in the brain that deteriorate over time when they are not rehearsed or recalled. What is the theory
trace decay theory
This theory is well supported by research and attributes forgetting to the disruption of memories by previously or more recently acquired information
interference theory
This type of interference occurs when previously learned information interferes with the ability to learn or recall new information
Proactive interference
exp: when memorization of a list of words in the past interferes with your ability to learn or recall a new list of words
This type of interference occurs when newly acquired information interferes with the ability to recall previously acquired information
retroactive interference
exp: unable to recall the first list of words you memorized after you memorize a second list of words
This technique for improving memory involves making new information meaningful, such as relating it to something you already know or using personally meaning examples. The encoding of this information is called semantic encoding
elaborative rehearsal
What kind of verbal mnemonic for memory is Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally?
Acrostic
(Using a statement to remember)
What kind of verbal mnemonic is OCEAN to remember the Big 5 Personality Traits
Acronym
The keyword method and method of loci are what kind of mnemonics? How do you use them?
visual imagery
Key word method is useful for pair associate learning. Remember pato is spanish for duck by drawing a duck with a pot on it’s head.
Method of loci: remembering grocery list by visualizing each needed item on a piece of furniture in your living room and mentally walking through the living room at the grocery store
What is the encoding specificity hypothesis and how does it work?
learning conditions work as retrieval cues; for example, taking a test in the same room you learning the information in. Or being in the same physiological or psychological state you learning the information in helps you retried it
Based on research of 10 learning techniques, which was the best and had the greatest utility
Practice testing such as flashcards and taking practice tests
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory is based on research on what kind of learning
observational
Based on his research, Bandura concluded that observational learning depends on attention, retention, production, and motivation. What are these processes?
attention: the learning must notice and pay attention to the model’s behavior
retention: the learner must store the info about model’s behavior in memory
production: learning must be capable of imitating bx
motivation: learning must be motivated to perform bx
According to Bandura, what increases motivation? There can be 3 different kinds
reinforcement;
self
external (given by someone else)
vicarious (given to the model)
This kind of conditioning helps explain involuntary, automatic responses to stimuli
classical conditioning
When the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus no longer produces the conditioned response. What is this in reference to?
Classical extinction
After a conditioned response has been extinguished, it can return in a reduced or less intense way after a period of time when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. This is called what?
Spontaneous recovery
Pavlov concluded that this provides evidence that the apparent extinction on a conditioned response is due to a physiological process that suppresses (rather than eliminates) the association between conditioned stimulus and conditioned response (internal inhibition)
This occurs when stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response without ever being paired
(Exp: little albert being afraid of white rabbits and other white furry objects, not just white rat)
Stimulus Generalization
The opposite of stimulus generalization and is the ability to discriminate between the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli
stimulus discrimination
When pre-exposure to a neutral stimulus alone on multiple occasions prior to conditioning trials reduces the likelihood that the stimulus will become a conditioned stimulus and elicit a conditioned response when it’s subsequently paired with a unconditioned stimulus
Latent inhibition
This process involves treating a conditioned stimulus as an unconditioned stimulus and pairing it with a neutral stimulus so the neutral stimulus also becomes a conditioned stimulus and elicits a conditioned response when presented alone
Higher order conditioning
This occurs when classical conditioning of the first neutral stimulus blocks classical conditioning of the second neutral stimulus. This happens because the second neutral stimulus does not provide any new information about the occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus
Blocking
(type of compound conditioning)
when 2 neutral stimuli are, from the start, repeatedly presented together before the unconditioned stimulus. When presented together, will produce a conditioned response. When presented separately, only the stronger stimulus will produce a conditioned response. The weaker stimulus will not. This is called what?
Overshadowing
(type of compound conditioning)
Interventions based on classical conditioning decrease or eliminate undesirable bx through what methods
extinction and counter conditioning
What interventions use classical extinction to alter behavior
ERP, Cue exposure therapy, implosive therapy, EMDR
This ERP strategy involves sustained exposure to stimuli that elicit the most intense levels of anxiety
Flooding
Cue Exposure Therapy is a type of response prevention that’s used to treat what
substance use disorders
This therapy involves exposing a client to cues (conditioned stimuli) associated with a substance while prohibiting them from using the substance. This weakens the relationship between the cues and substance us through extinction or habituation
Cue Exposure Therapy
This type of therapy encourages the client to exaggerate their image of the feared object or event to elicit high levels of anxiety and embellishes the scene being imagined by the client with psychodynamic conflicts that are believed to underlie the client’s anxiety (sexuality, hostility, rejection)
Implosive Therapy
Implosive therapy is a type of exposure therapy incorporates psychodynamic elements. These exposures are always done how?
Imaginally
EMDR is an effective treatment for PTSD, but is not superior to ______ and other evidence based treatments
CBT
Research shows that the effectiveness of EMDR is not due to _____, but rather due to _______ to the feared event
eye movement ; exposure in imagination
Interventions that use counter- conditioning are
systematic desensitization and aversion therapy
Who developed systematic desensitization
Wolpe
What are the 3 steps of systematic desensitization?
- Client learns deep muscle relaxation or other procedure that produces relaxation
- Client and therapist create anxiety hierarchy
4.Client imagines stimuli from hierarchy and uses relaxation procedures while doing so. Client moves to next item on hierarchy when they can maintain a relaxed state while imagining the stimulus
When aversion therapy is conducted in imagination rather than in vivo it’s known as what
covert sensitization
These sessions usually end by having client imagine a relief scene—having the client imagine facing a stimulus associated with the problem behavior but refraining from engaging in the behavior and, as a result, experiencing a sense of relief or other positive sensation
This therapy is used to treat addictions and other self-reinforcing bxs by pairing the problem behavior with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally produces an unpleasant response
Aversion therapy
Research using the dismantling strategy (which involves comparing the individual components of a treatment) has found that the effectiveness of systematic desensitization is due to _____ rather than counterconditioning (reciprocal inhibition)
classical extinction
This kind of conditioning is useful for understanding the factors that contribute to the acquisition, maintenance, and cessation of voluntary behaviors
operant conditioning
Thorndike’s (1898) ________ _______ _________ states that bxs that are followed by satisfying consequences are likely to occur again, while behaviors that are followed by dissatisfying consequences are less likely to be repeated
Law of effect
Occurs when a bx increases or is maintained at it’s current level because a stimulus is applied following the bx
Positive reinforcement
What kind of reinforcement or punishment is this:
An Employee works overtime because he is paid extra for doing so
Positive reinforcement
Occurs when a behavior increases or is maintained because a stimulus is removed following the behavior
negative reinforcement
What kind of reinforcement or punishment is this:
A child straightens their room because their parents stop nagging when they do so
negative reinforcement
Occurs when a behavior decreases because a stimulus is applied following the behavior
Positive punishment
What kind of reinforcement or punishment is this:
A child stops teasing the family dog because his parents yell at him whenever he does so
Positive punishment
Occurs when a bx decreases because a stimulus is taken away following the behavior
Negative punishment
What kind of reinforcement or punishment is this:
An adolescent stops swearing because one dollar is deducted from his weekly allowance whenever he swears
Negative punishment
When reinforcement is withheld every time a bx occurs to decrease or stop the behavior
Operant extinction
Termination of reinforcement will eventually decrease or stop the bx, but will often produce a temporary increase in the bx called what?
extinction burst
The acquisition of a bx is fastest when it’s reinforced on a ____________ (ever time it occurs), but the optimal procedure to start with is ___________ and then switch to _________________ when the bx is occurring at the desired level
Continuous
Continuous
Intermittent (Partial) Schedule
This is because continuous reinforcement is associated with satiation (loss of the reinforcer’s reinforcing value) and can lead to rapid extinction of the bx when reinforcement is stopped.
Fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, and variable ratio are 4 kinds of ____reinforcement scheduled
intermittent
On this schedule, reinforcement is consistently provided after a set period of time regardless of how many times the behavior occurs during a set period of time. This produces a low rate of responding
Fixed interval
On this schedule, reinforcement is provided after varying and unpredictable lengths, though the lengths may be close, they are not the same. This produces a steady by relatively low rate of responding
Variable interval
On this schedule, reinforcement is consistently provided after a specific number of responses. This produces a steady and relatively high rate of responding
Fixed ratio
On this schedule, reinforcement is provided after a changing, but average number of responses. This produces the highest rates of responding and has the greatest resistance to extinction
Variable ratio
Think gambling with a slot machine. Reinforced on a varying schedule
Reducing the amount of reinforcement for a behavior (Exp: switching from continuous to intermittent schedule of reinforcement) . Doing this once a bx reaches its desired level helps increase resistance to extinction
Thinning
According to this law of operant reinforcement, when 2 or more behaviors are concurrently reinforced on different schedules, the rate of performing each behavior is proportional to the frequency of reinforcement and the magnitude of reinforcement
Exp: When a rat is reinforced on a VI-30 schedule for pressing lever 1 and a VI-15 for level 2, the rat will press lever 2 about twice as often as lever 1
Matching law
These types of positive reinforcers are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy needs that are related to basic survival. What are examples?
primary reinforcers (food, water)
These types of positive reinforcers are neutral stimuli that become reinforcing because of their association to primary reinforcers.
Secondary reinforcers (praise, tokens)
When these are associated with a variety of back-up (primary) reinforcers, they are referred to as generalized reinforcers. Money is an example
This happens when a bx increases because it was accidentally reinforced.
Superstitious behavior
This is generally a gradual decline in the frequency or magnitude of a response. It’s one of the reasons why punishment doesn’t have good long term effects
Habituation
These are cues that help initiate the performance of a bx and include cues, instructions, or physical guidance. When a bx is reinforced, these become associate with the reinforcement and act as a positive discriminative stimuli (exp: finish your homework so you can play video games)
Prompts
Gradually removing a prompt once a bx is at the desired level is called
Fading
In some situations, providing reinforcement for a specific bx not only increases the bx but also increases the likelihood that similar bxs will occur. (Exp: When a child is praised for sharing a toy with a child and starts sharing toys with other children)
Response generalization
This happens when a s a bx occurs in the presence of one stimulus, but not another stimulus (exp: light versus blinking light).This is an example of 2 factor learning that combines operant and classical conditioning. Performance of a bx is due to positive reinforcement (operant conditioning). Performance of the bx is the presence of a positive discriminative stimulus but not the presence of a negative discriminative stimulus is the result of discrimination training (classical conditioning)
Stimulus control
Escape and avoidance conditioning are types of _______ reinforcement
negative
This occurs when a bx allows the individual to get away from an unpleasant stimulus
Exp: a dog gets away from an electric shock applied to the floor of its cage by jumping over a barrier
Escape conditioning (negative reinforcement)
This is a result of two factor learning and occurs when a stimulus signals that an unpleasant stimulus is about to be applied and the behavior occurs because it allows the individual to avoid the unpleasant stimulus
Exp: a dog learns that a blinking light signals an electric shock is about to be applied to the floor of it’s cage so it jumps over a barrier when the light starts blinking. In this situation, the light (conditioned stimulus; classical conditioning) and jumping over barrier when light starts to avoid shock is negative reinforcement (operant conditioning)
avoidance conditioning (negative reinforcement)
This occurs when there’s successive approximations to a desired behavior
Exp: trying to teach imitative speech to children with autism. First reinforcing with food and praise for making any vocalization, and then only for making a vocalization after the teacher did it, then only for sounds similar to the teacher, then only for imitating the teacher
Shaping (positive reinforcement)
This is used to establish a complex bx that consists of separate responses. This starts with a task analysis to identify the individual responses needed to make up the behavior. It can happen in a forward or backward manner.
Chaining (positive reinforcement)
Exp: Teaching a child to brush their teeth by first teaching them to grab toothpaste, take the top off, grab tooth brush etc.
What is the difference between shaping and chaining
In shaping, only the final target is important and the other behaviors that were reinforced during the training are not longer important or evident once the individual can perform the final bx. In chaining, each responses in the bx chain is important and evident
This applies when using a high frequency bx as a reinforcer for a low frequency bx or less preferred bx to increase the low frequency bx.
Exp: when a child loves video games but hates doing homework, parent tells them they can play video games only after doing homework
Premack Principle
(positive reinforcement)
Restitution and Positive Practice are types of _____________ punishment that fall under _____________
Positive; Overcorrection
(apply penalties following an undesirable bx to reduce or eliminate it)
This involves having an individual correct the consequences of their bx and restore the environment to a better state. This may include providing verbal instructions and physical guidance.
(if a child gets angry and knocks over several chairs in a classroom, he would be required to pick up the chairs and position all of the chairs in the classroom)
Restitution
This involves practicing alternative appropriate bxs that are similar to the desirable bx. This may include providing verbal instructions and physical guidance.
(the child who knocks over chairs will be required to straighten the entire classroom)
Positive practice
This occurs when removing all sources of reinforcement following an undesirable bx for a brief period of time.
Time out
What factors impact the effectiveness of time out
Individual should be informed about what bxs will result in a time out and how long it will last
Time out should be immediately after the bx and should be applied consistently to the bx
Time length should be brief (1-10 min)
Should not end until the individual is no longer engaging in the behavior.
This is a type of negative punishment that involves removing a specific reinforcer temporarily or permanently after a bx occurs to decrease or eliminate the bx
Response cost
This combines extinction and positive reinforcement and is used to eliminate or weaken undesirable bx and increase desirable bx
Differential reinforcement
This process involves using the initial conditioned stimulus as an unconditioned stimulus by pairing it with a second neutral stimulus so that the second neutral stimulus also becomes a CS and elicits a conditioned response when presented alone
Second order conditioning
