Learning

Question 1

Behavioral Contrast

Answer 1

Occurs when two behaviors are reinforced and reinforcement for one behavior is stopped.

Question 2

Premack Principle

Answer 2

Type of positive reinforcement in which a high-frequency behavior is used as a reinforcer to increase a low-frequency behavior.

Question 3

Differential Reinforcement

Answer 3

Used in ABA and involves selectively reinforcing desired behaviors while withholding reinforcement for undesired behaviors.

Question 4

In the context of classical conditioning, what is blocking?

Answer 4

When a new neutral stimulus and a previously conditioned CS (CS1) are presented together before the presentation of the US.

Question 5

What is overcorrection used for?

Answer 5

Used to eliminate and replace an undesirable behavior that usually includes two phases: restitution and positive practice.

Question 6

Successive Approximation Conditioning is also known as what and why?

Answer 6

It is known as “Shaping” and it involves reinforcing successive approximations until the desired behavior is established.

Question 7

What is the difference between a positive discriminative stimulus and a negative discriminative stimulus?

Answer 7

Positive discriminate stimulus equals reinforcement that will be delivered following the performance of a particular behavior.

Negative discriminative stimulus signals that reinforcement will not be delivered after the behavior is delivered.

Question 8

What conditioning response has been found to be responsible for counter-conditioning?

Answer 8

Extinction. Because repeated exposure to the conditioned stimulus (CS) causes extinction of the conditioned response (CR)

Question 9

What is the keyword method and what is it used for?

Answer 9

The method involves creating an image that links two words or links a word and it’s definition and is particularly useful for second language learning.

Question 10

Proactive Interference

Answer 10

Occurs when prior learning interferes with the ability to learn or recall new information

Question 11

Retroactive interference

Answer 11

The tendency of later learning to hinder the memory of previously learned material

Question 12

Serial position effect

Answer 12

The tendency to remember the first and last items on a list better than those in the middle

Question 13

Recency effect

Answer 13

A cognitive bias in which those items, ideas or arguments that came last are remembered more clearly than those that came first

Question 14

What is “shaping?”

Answer 14

Also known as “successive approximation conditioning”, and involves reinforcing successive approximation to the desired behavior until the desired behavior is established

Question 15

What is the difference between shaping and chaining in learning?

Answer 15

Shaping focuses on reinforcing closer, and closer approximations to a single desired behavior. Chaining teaches a sequence of behaviors to complete an overall behavior goal.

Question 16

What is Mowrer’s two-factor theory of learning and what conditioning method uses this theory?

Answer 16

The theory proposes that some behaviors are the result of the combination of classical and operant conditioning. Avoidance conditioning is an example of the two factor learning as it combines classical conditioning and negative reinforcement.

Question 17

In the context of operant conditioning, what is the difference between fading and thinning?

Answer 17

Fading refers to the gradual removal of prompts so that eventually the desired behavior occurs without prompts. Thinning refers to the reduction of reinforcement.

Fading refers to prompts and thinning refers to reduction of reinforcement.

Question 18

According to Skinner, how our superstitious behaviors developed and what reinforcement schedule is used?

Answer 18

Superstitious behaviors are developed from non-contention reinforcement aka. negative reinforcement. Fixed interval schedule is used.

Question 19

According to Pavlov, what is experimental neurosis?

Answer 19

The inability to distinguish between stimuli causing strange behavior in otherwise well-trained animals.

Question 20

What is the capacity of sensory memory?

Answer 20

Also known as sensory register, it has a large capacity for Information, but stores it for a brief period of time. (From about 1/4 second to 4 seconds.)

Question 21

What is the method of loci used for?

Answer 21

Method of loci uses a visual image to help encode and recall a list of unrelated words. It involves choosing a familiar location and visually placing each word in a different place in that location. It helps you to remember the word because of the visual object that it’s located by.

Question 22

What is a discriminative stimulus?

Answer 22

When the stimulus signals that a behavior will be reinforced.

Question 23

Retroactive interference

Answer 23

Occurs when more recently acquired information interferes with the ability to recall previously acquired information.

Question 24

What is chaining?

Answer 24

Used to establish a complex behavior that consists of a sequence of responses that occur in a fixed order.

Question 25

What is shaping?

Answer 25

Is used to establish a behavior by reinforcing successive approximations to the behavior.

Question 26

What is the difference between habituation versus satiation?

Answer 26

Habituation is a classical conditioning term. It’s when the subject becomes accustom to and less responsive to the US after repeat exposure and stops eliciting a UR.

Satiation is an operant conditioning term and it’s when the reinforcer loses its value through overuse.

Question 27

Response cost is an application of which reinforcement schedules?

Answer 27

Negative punishment – it’s used to reduce or eliminate behavior by removing a positive reinforcer whenever the behavior occurs.

Question 28

What type of conditioning does implosive therapy use to eliminate a fear response?

Answer 28

Classical extinction

Question 29

What attributes the effectiveness of systematic desensitization for treating anxiety to which conditioning technique? And describe the technique.

Answer 29

Reciprocal inhibition which is to pair a stimulus that produces anxiety with a stimulus that produces relaxation.

Question 30

In classical conditioning, What is The most effective method to establish a conditioned response?

Answer 30

Delay conditioning

Question 31

What is the focus of treatment when using in vivo exposure and the reciprocal inhibition?

Answer 31

To treat phobias

Question 32

Implosive therapy combines what?

Answer 32

Exposure and imagination and psychodynamic techniques.

Question 33

Types of positive reinforcers

Answer 33

Primary reinforcers are things like food and water.

Secondary reinforcers our neutral stimuli that become reinforcing. Like praise and tokens.

General reinforcers when secondary reinforcers are associated with primary reinforcers. Money is an example of a generalizing enforcer. General reinforcers are also least susceptible to satiation

Question 34

What is Cue Exposure Treatment (CET) and what type of therapy does it fall under and what are the components of treatment that makes it effective?

Answer 34

It’s a type of exposure therapy that’s used to treat substance use disorders. It involves exposing patients to cues associated with their problem behavior while prohibiting them engaging in the behavior. It’s most effective when combined with coping skills training.

Question 35

Without rehearsal, how long does Information remain in short-term memory?

Answer 35

20 to 30 seconds

Question 36

What is trace decay theory and how was it contradicted in research?

Answer 36

Tracy to pay theory is concept that memories fade if they are not regularly rehearsed or recalled. Research found, however, that people could still remember things that they learned it right before going to sleep and were able to recall it the next day because of memory consolidation that happens during sleep.

Question 37

What is the explanation of forgetting?

Answer 37

Trace decay theory- memories for physical changes in the brain that deteriorate over time when they’re not rehearsed or recalled.

Interference theory- forgetting is due to the disruption of memories by previously or more recently acquired information. There’s two types of interference, proactive and retroactive.

Question 38

Proactive interference

Answer 38

Occurs on previously learned information interferes with the ability to learn a recall new information.

Question 39

Retroactive interference

Answer 39

Occurs when newly acquired information interferes with the ability to recall previously acquired information.

Question 40

What are the four processes involved with observational learning according to Bandura?

Answer 40

Attention
retention
production
motivation.

Question 41

Encoding specificity hypothesis attributes forgetting to inadequate what?

Answer 41

Retrieval Cues

Example: testing in the same environment or the same condition as where you learned the information is the best way to remember the information.

Question 42

Memory Time Spans in order (shorter to longest)

Answer 42

Sensory Memory-
Iconic- .5 sec
Echoic- 2 sec

Short Term (aka “primary memory”) - 20 sec
- 7+2 capacity
- chunking
- working memory (manipulating info in short-term memory)

Long term memory
- unlimited
- short term transferred to long-term
- divided into:
recent (secondary) - minutes to years
remote (tertiary) - years to decades

Question 43

Serial Position Effect

Answer 43

IMMEDIATE exposure- Primacy and Recency Effect- Recalling words listed first and last and not the middle after

DELAYED exposure- Primacy Effect only (words at the end are no longer in short term memory.)

Question 44

Difference between implicit and explicit memory.

Answer 44

Explicit memories require conscious effort to retrieve. Implicit does not.

Implicit is used sometimes can also be synonymous with non declarative memory which includes procedural, classical conditioning and priming.

Question 45

Name the two types of declarative memories and define:

Answer 45

Semantic- remembering facts, concepts and other kinds of knowledge

Episodic- remembering personal experiences/events

Question 46

Name the types of memory that fall under long-term memory:

Answer 46

Procedural
Retrospective/prospective
Implicit
Declarative (Episodic and Semantic)
Explicit

Mnemonic I take PRIDE in my long-term memory!

Question 47

What is Priming in regards to memory?

Answer 47

Exposing one to a stimulus to facilitate a response. Associated with Implicit memory

Question 48

What is the DRM procedure and what is it used for?

Answer 48

It’s a procedure used to study how false memories are affected by different factors such as emotional state, age, or stress.

Involves asking subjects to read a list of semantically related words, and, after a delay, asking them to recall as many of the words included in the list as possible.

Question 49

What are two explanations for forgetting?

Answer 49

Trace decay theory which is about memories that make physical changes in the brain that deteriorate overtime when they’re not rehearsed or recalled. This theory has not been well supported.

Interference theory has been more consistently supported and is about disruption of memories by previously or more recently acquired information. It is between two types of interference – proactive and retroactive.

Question 50

List the three cognitive learning theories, their founders and general concepts of the theory.

Answer 50

Tolman‘s Latent learning- used three groups of rats and discovered that learning takes place when a reinforcer is involved.

Kohlers insight learning- Use chimpanzees in a cage with boxes to stack and bananas hanging on the ceiling. Includes a reinforcer, but focuses on the “a-ha moment” in problem-solving.

Bandura’s social cognitive theory- discovered that children observed aggression behaved in the same way. His focus is on observational learning, which requires for processes: attention, retention, production, and motivation.

Question 51

What’s the difference between proactive and retroactive interference?

Answer 51

Proactive interference- when PReviously learned information interferes with the ability to
learn or recall new information.

Retroactive interference- When newly acquired information interferes with the ability to recall previously acquired information.

Question 52

Thinning

Answer 52

Reducing the amount of positive reinforcement

Question 53

What is the purpose of rapid eye movement in EMDR according to Shapiro?

Answer 53

Rapid eye movement is used to accelerate information, processing and adaptive resolution of traumatic memories.

Question 54

Therapy interventions based on classical conditioning

Answer 54

Systematic desensitization
Aversion therapy
Exposure therapy (EMDR is a form of this)