Language Change Cont.

Question 1

Models of Spread/Intro into Loan Words:
how does change from below (unconscious) spread =

Answer 1

• e.g The Gravity Model of Diffusion (NCVS, USA vowel merger)
  1. Change starts in large density population in urban areas
  2. Spreads to other densely populated areas (river networks, road rails)
  3. Leapfrogs over sparsely populated, rural reigns

Question 2

1. Random Fluctuation Theory:
   Charles Hockett (1953)

Answer 2

• Random errors in spelling, punctuation, and grammar drive change
• e.g ‘pwned’ neologism = owned (beaten) in the online gaming world
• Hockett’s theory accounts for errors.
• He says that when someone makes an error (a ‘random fluctuation’ in the standard), these errors can be standardised and recognised as somewhat synonymous.
• For example, iPhones famously autocorrect ‘fuck’ and ‘fucking’ to ‘duck’ and ‘ducking’, sparking social media attention and memes.

Question 3

2. S-Curve:
   Chen (1968 & 1972)

Answer 3

• Linguistic research shows that change ‘x’ is slow at first. then expands rapidly, then slows right down again
• S-curve’ model can demonstrate that all change needs time in order to be effective.
• In this model, change is shown to be effective as long as it can move out of a social group or geographical area.

Evaluation:
- However, Chen’s model also states that no change made can ever be 100% effective, as there will always be some people who resist change or who don’t adopt changes.
- As a result, many changes may be ‘long-term’, but aren’t necessarily effective or vice-versa.
- For example, it is unlikely that ‘lol’ will still be being used in 50 years.

Question 4

3. The Wave Model (of Spread) (vocal fry):
   CJ. Bailey (1973)

Answer 4

• As change ‘x’ diffuses, it’s influence gets weaker the further away in geographic and social space from it’s origin
• It may skip some social/geographic groups altogether
• The wave model works on the same basis as a drop of water hitting the surface of a lake – it creates ripples.
• Essentially, the closer you are to the drop of water the stronger the ripple.
• In this sense, those closest to the geographical location of where the change occurs are more likely to pick up the change.
• If you think back to MLE, the change spread very quickly through London, but took longer to diffuse out wider than this.

Question 5

4. Gravity Model of Diffusion:
   Peter Trudgill (1974)

Answer 5

• Change diffuses from the most densely populated areas, to other dense areas, leap-frogging sparsely populated areas
• Trudgill, however, challenges this model.
• He believes that change comes from big cities, is passed to big towns and then to smaller towns, missing out country dwellings.
• He believes that the core case study of this is Yorkshire, where the archaic ‘thee’ and ‘thou’ are still in use in place of ‘you’.

Question 6

Q: When was the Académie Française established?

Answer 6

• A: 1635

Question 7

Q: Who founded the Académie Française?

Answer 7

• A: Cardinal Richelieu

Question 8

Q: What is the main purpose of the Académie Française?

Answer 8

• A: To preserve and standardise the French language

Question 9

Q: What are the members of the Académie Française called?

Answer 9

• A: “Les Immortels” (The Immortals)

Question 10

Q: How many members are in the Académie Française?

Answer 10

• A: 40

Question 11

Q: How long do members serve in the Académie Française?

Answer 11

• A: For life

Question 12

Q: What significant work does the Académie Française produce?

Answer 12

• A: An authoritative dictionary of the French language

Question 13

Q: Why has the Académie Française faced criticism?

Answer 13

• A: For being overly traditional and slow to adapt, especially regarding digital and multicultural influences

Question 14

Q: How does the Académie Française view foreign influences on French?

Answer 14

• A: It aims to keep the language “pure” and has opposed the influence of foreign words, especially English

Question 15

Q: What is the Académie’s stance on English words entering French?

Answer 15

• A: Generally opposed, as it strives to preserve the purity of the French language

Question 16

key terms 2:

Answer 16

• open word classes: classes of words that can be added to
• closed word classes: classes of the words that cannot be added to
• functional words: closed word classes
• content words: open word classes

Question 17

The Process of Standardisation:

Answer 17

1. Selection: Choose a standard form of British English for grammar, spelling, vocabulary, and pronunciation, to be used in education, media, and official contexts. (For e.g colour vs color-> dialect)
   2. Codification: Minimum variation. Set clear rules for spelling and grammar, like consistent “ise” endings and no double negatives, and document them in dictionaries and style guides.
   3. Elaboration: maximum variation. Expand the standard English to cover diverse fields like science, law, and literature, while keeping its core structure.
   4. Implementation: Teach the standard English in schools, promote it in media and government, and encourage its use in exams and public discourse.

Question 18

Some restrictions to language change:

Answer 18

• physical barriers e.g geographic/technological
• social barriers
• attitudes to change - prescriptivism
• standardisation

Question 19

Substratum theory:

Answer 19

• Substratum theory explains how changes can be made as a result of interactions with other languages and variations of English.
• For example, British English saw an increase in the use of ‘like’ as an intensifier as a result of American English use of it on TV shows like FRIENDS.

Question 20

Substratum changes:

Answer 20

• The most common explanation for substratum changes include:
• The media (the above example).
• Invasion (the French invasion of 1066).
  Immigration (as in MLE).
• Through travel and exploration (as in the birth of America).

Question 21

The theories are all part of the topic called…

Answer 21

• Modelling change

Question 22

SE: Standard English

Answer 22

• wherein a language’s spelling, grammar, and vocabulary are regulated.
• formal written and represent ‘best practice’ of ‘correct usage’

Question 23

Factors driving standardisation:

Answer 23

• prestige of SE English dialect
• printing and the need for single, universally recognised spelling/dialect terms (caxton’s eggs)
• desire to codify, and establish rules linked to the Enlightenment (18th century)
• Samuel Johnson the first published dictionary (1755)