Language and Thought - Yule

Question 1

Parts of language

Answer 1

Phonetics (speech sounds), Phonology (phonemes), Morphology (morphemes, words), Syntax (phrases, sentences), Semantics (literal meaning of phrases, sentences), Pragmatics (meaning in context of discourse)

Question 2

2. Communicative signals

Answer 2

Behavior used intentionally to provide information

Question 3

2. Informative signals

Answer 3

Behavior used most often to unintentionally provide information

Question 4

2. Glossolalia

Answer 4

Also known as “speaking in tongues”, the production of sounds and syllables in a stream of speech that seems to have no communicative purpose

Question 5

2. Reflexivity

Answer 5

A special property of human language that allows language to be used to think and talk about language itself

Question 6

2. Displacement

Answer 6

A property of language that allows users to talk about things and event not present in the immediate environment

Question 7

2. Arbitrariness

Answer 7

A property of language describing the fact that there is no natural connection between a linguistic form and it’s meaning

Question 8

2. Cultural transmission

Answer 8

The process whereby knowledge of a language is passed from one generation to the next

Question 9

2. Productivity

Answer 9

A property of language that allows users to create new expressions, also called “creativity” or “openendedness”

Question 10

2. Fixed reference

Answer 10

A property of a communication system whereby each signal is fixed as relating to one particular object or occasion. In other words fixed in terms of relating to a particular purpose, ex. Animals with three basic calls.

Question 11

2. Duality

Answer 11

A property of language whereby linguistic forms have two simultaneous levels of sounds production and meaning, also called “double articulation”

Question 12

3. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

Answer 12

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a system that uses symbols to represent the sounds of spoken language. It helps people accurately show how words are pronounced, regardless of the language. These symbols cover all the different sounds humans can make when speaking, from consonants and vowels to tones and accents. It’s like a universal alphabet for sounds, making it easier for linguists, language learners, and speech therapists to understand and describe spoken language. Ex. the English word “cat.” In IPA, it is transcribed as /kæt/.

Question 13

3. Phonetics

Answer 13

The study of the characteristics of speech sounds

Question 14

3. Articulatory phonetics

Answer 14

The study of how speech sounds are produced

Question 15

3. Acoustic phonetics

Answer 15

The study of the physical properties of speech as sound waves

Question 16

3. Auditory phonetics

Answer 16

The study of the perception of speech sounds by the ear, also called “perceptual phonetics”

Question 17

3. Vocal folds/cords

Answer 17

Thin strips of muscle in the larynx (located in neck) which can be open, in voiceless sounds, or close together creating vibration in voiced sounds

Question 18

3. Voiced sounds

Answer 18

Speech sounds produced with vibrations of the vocal folds

Question 19

3. Voiceless sounds

Answer 19

Speech sounds produced without vibrations of the vocal folds

Question 20

3. Bilabial

Answer 20

A consonant produced by using both lips. Ex. the first and last sounds in “pub”

Question 21

3. Labiodentals

Answer 21

A consonant produced with the upper teeth and the lower lip. Ex. The first sounds in “very” and “funny”.

Question 22

3. Alveolar

Answer 22

A consonant produced with the front part of the tongue of the alveolar ridge (bony part behind the upper front teeth). Ex. The first and last sounds in “dot”.

Question 23

3. Dentals

Answer 23

A consonant produced with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth. Ex. The first sound in “that”.

Question 24

3. Interdentals

Answer 24

A consonant produced with the tongue tip between the upper and lower teeth. Ex. The first sound in “that”.

Question 25

3. Post-alveolars

Answer 25

Consonants formed with the tongue and the back of the alveolar ridge. Ex. The first sound in “ship”.

Question 26

3. Palatal

Answer 26

A consonant produced by raising the tongue to the palate (also called alveopalatal, the hard part of the rood of the mouth). Ex. The first sounds in “ship” and “yacht”

Question 27

3. Velars

Answer 27

A consonant produced by raising the back of the tongue to the velum (soft area at the back of the roof of the mouth). Ex. The first and last words in “geek”.

Question 28

3. Glottal

Answer 28

A sound produced in the space between the vocal folds. Ex. The first sound in “hat”.

Question 29

3. Stop (consonant)

Answer 29

A consonant produced by stopping the airflow, then letting it go, also called “plosive”. Ex. The first and last sounds in “cat”.

Question 30

3. Manner of articulation

Answer 30

A term used in phonetics to describe how speech sounds are produced based on the movement and configuration of the articulatory organs, such as the tongue, lips, and vocal folds, as the airflow is modified in the vocal tract. It refers to the way in which airflow is obstructed or modified to create different speech sounds.

Question 31

3. Fricative

Answer 31

A consonant produced by almost blocking the airflow. Ex. The first and last sounds in “fourth”.

Question 32

3. Glottal stop

Answer 32

A sound produced when the air passing through the glottis (the space between the vocal folds) is stopped completely and then released. Ex. the sound heard in the Cockney pronunciation of the word “butter,” where the “tt” is pronounced as a glottal stop, so it sounds like “bu’er.” Another example is in some dialects or accents of English, where the glottal stop is used in place of the “t” sound in words like “bottle” or “kitten,” so they may sound like “bo’le” and “ki’en.”

Question 33

3. Flap

Answer 33

A sound produced with the tongue tip briefly touching the alveolar ridge. Ex. found in the pronunciation of the “tt” sound in words like “butter” or “water” when they are spoken quickly or in connected speech. In these words, the “tt” is often pronounced as a flap rather than a true stop consonant.

Question 34

3. Diphthongs

Answer 34

A sound combination that begins with a vowel and ends with another vowel or a glide. Ex. the word “price” or “boy”. Defined by sound characteristics.

Question 35

3. Uvula

Answer 35

The small appendage at the end of the velum (soft area at the back of the roof of the mouth).

Question 36

3. Uvular (sounds)

Answer 36

A sound produced with the back of tongue near the uvula. Ex. In the word “rouge”.

Question 37

4. Phonology

Answer 37

The study of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in language

Question 38

4. Phoneme

Answer 38

The smallest meaning-distinguishing sound unit in the abstract representation of the sounds of a language. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language that can change the meaning of a word. It’s like the basic building block of speech sounds. For instance, in English, the sounds /p/ and /b/ are phonemes because they can change the meaning of words (e.g., “pat” versus “bat”). Even though they’re different sounds, they’re perceived as the same “thing” by speakers because substituting one for the other can change the meaning of a word.

Question 39

4. Natural class

Answer 39

A set of sounds with phonetic features in common, such as /p/, /t/, and /k/ in English, which are all voiceless stops

Question 40

4. Phones

Answer 40

A physically produced speech sound, representing one version of a phoneme. Phones are the actual physical sounds that we produce when we speak. They represent specific versions of phonemes.

Question 41

4. Allophones

Answer 41

One of a closely related set of speech sounds or phones. For instance, the “p” sound in “pat” might be slightly different from the “p” sound in “spin,” but we still perceive them as the same phoneme /p/.

Question 42

4. Aspiration

Answer 42

A puff of air that sometimes accompanies the pronunciation of a stop.

Question 43

4. Complementary distribution

Answer 43

In phonology, two different pronunciations of a phoneme always used in different places in words.

Question 44

4. Minimal pair (set)

Answer 44

Two (or more) words that are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme in the same position in each word. Ex. “bad”, “mad”.

Question 45

4. Phonotactics

Answer 45

Constraints on the permissible combination of sounds in a language. Phonotactics are rules determining which sounds can appear together in a language. Ex. In English, “bsk” is not a permissible cluster of sounds at the beginning of a word, so you won’t find words that start with “bsk.”

Question 46

4. Syllable

Answer 46

A unit of sound consisting of a vowel and optional consonants before or after the vowel.

Question 47

4. Onset

Answer 47

The part of the syllable before the vowel. Ex. Basketball - B, k, b are the onset before the vowel

Question 48

4. Nucleus

Answer 48

The vowel in a syllable. Ex. Basketball - A, e, a are the nucleus.

Question 49

4. Rhyme

Answer 49

The part of the syllable containing the vowel plus any following consonant(s), also called rime. Ex. Basketball - As, et, all are the rhymes.

Question 50

4. Coda

Answer 50

The part of the syllable after the vowel. Ex. Basketball - S, t, ll is the coda.

Question 51

4. Open syllables

Answer 51

A syllable that ends with a vowel (or nucleus) and has no coda

Question 52

4. Consonant cluster

Answer 52

Two or more consonants in a sequence.

Question 53

4. Closed syllables

Answer 53

A syllable that ends with a consonant.

Question 54

4. Coarticulation effects

Answer 54

The process of making one sound virtually at the same time as the next sound. This refers to the phenomenon where the articulation of one speech sound is influenced by the preceding or following sound. Essentially, it’s the blending or overlapping of sounds due to the physical constraints of the vocal tract during speech production. Ex. In the word “cup,” the lips start to round for the “u” sound before the “k” sound is completed, demonstrating coarticulation effects.

Question 55

4. Assimilation

Answer 55

The process whereby a feature of one sound becomes part of another during speech production.

Question 56

4. Nasalization

Answer 56

Pronunciation of a sound with air flowing through the nose, typically before a nasal (a sound produced through the nose. Ex. the first sounds in “my name”) consonant.

Question 57

4. Elision

Answer 57

The process of leaving out a sound segment in the pronunciation of a word. Ex. In the word “chocolate,” the “o” sound in the second syllable may be elided or left out in casual speech, resulting in pronunciation like “choc-late” instead of “choc-o-late.” Elision helps speakers articulate words more quickly and naturally in everyday conversation.

Question 58

5. Neologisms

Answer 58

A new word

Question 59

5. Etymology

Answer 59

The study of the origin and history of words

Question 60

5. Borrowing

Answer 60

The process of taking words from other languages

Question 61

5. Loan-translation / calque

Answer 61

A type of borrowing in which each element of a word is translated into the borrowing language. Ex. “Gratte-ciel” means scrape-sky to build “skyscraper”.

Question 62

5. Compounding

Answer 62

The process of combining two (or more) words to form a new word. Ex. “waterbed”.

Question 63

5. Blending

Answer 63

The process of combining the beginning of one word and the end of another to form a new word. Ex. the word “brunch” from “breakfast” and “lunch”.

Question 64

5. Clipping

Answer 64

The process of reducing a word more than one syllable to a shorter form. Ex “ad” instead of “advertisement”.

Question 65

5. Hypocorisms

Answer 65

A word-formation process in which a longer word is reduced to a shorter form with -y or -ie at the end. Ex. “telly” or “movie”.

Question 66

5. Backformation

Answer 66

The process of reducing a word such as a noun to a shorter version and using it as a new word such as a verb. Ex “babysit” from “babysitter”.

Question 67

5. Conversion

Answer 67

The process of changing the function of a word, such as a noun to a verb, as a way of forming new words, also known as “category change” or “functional shift”. Ex. “vacation” in “they are vacationing in Florida”.

Question 68

5. Coinage

Answer 68

The invention of new words. Ex. “xerox”.

Question 69

5. Eponyms

Answer 69

A word derived from the name of a person or place. Ex. The word “sandwich” comes from the 4th Earl of Sandwich.

Question 70

5. Acronyms

Answer 70

A new word formed from the initial letters of other words. Ex. “NASA”.

Question 71

5. Derivation

Answer 71

The process of forming new words by adding affixes

Question 72

5. Affixes

Answer 72

A bound morpheme such as un- or -ed added to a word. Ex. The word “un-dress-ed”.

Question 73

5. Prefixes

Answer 73

A bound morpheme added to the beginning of a word. Ex. The word “un-happy”.

Question 74

5. Suffixes

Answer 74

A bound morpheme added to the end of a word. Ex. In “faint-ed” or “ill-ness”.

Question 75

5. Infix

Answer 75

A morpheme that is inserted in the middle of a word. Ex -rn in “srnal”.

Question 76

5. Analogy

Answer 76

A process of forming a new word that is similar in some way to an existing word. The plural form of “foot” follows the pattern of changing the vowel sound and adding the suffix “-et” to form “feet,” similar to other irregular plurals like “tooth” (teeth) and “goose” (geese).

Question 77

6. Morphology

Answer 77

The analysis of the structure of words

Question 78

6. Morphemes

Answer 78

A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. Ex. “Cat” consists of one morpheme. “Unhappiness” consists of three morphemes: “un-“ (a prefix), “happy” (a root), and “-ness” (a suffix).

Question 79

6. Free morphemes

Answer 79

A morpheme that can stand by itself as a single word. Ex. The words “cat” or “happy”.

Question 80

6. Bound morphemes

Answer 80

A morpheme such as un- or -ed that cannot stand alone and must be attached to another form. Ex. The word “undressed”.

Question 81

6. Stems

Answer 81

The baser form to which affixes are attached in the formation of words. Ex. In the word “happiness,” “happy” is the stem to which the suffix “-ness” is attached

Question 82

6. Lexical morphemes

Answer 82

A free morpheme that is a content word such as a noun, verb, adjective. Ex. Nouns: “cat”, verbs: “run”

Question 83

6. Functional morphemes

Answer 83

A free morpheme that uses a function word such as a conjunction: “and” or a preposition “in”.

Question 84

6. Derivational morphemes

Answer 84

A bound morpheme such as -ish used to make new words or words of a different grammatical category. Ex. The word “boyish” turns the word “boy” into an adjective by adding an adjective-forming suffix . In contrast to an inflectional morpheme.

Question 85

6. Inflectional morphemes

Answer 85

A bound morpheme used to indicate the grammatical function of a word, also called an “inflection”. Such as tense, plurality, or possession. Ex. “Dog-s, walk-ed”, “-s” (as in “dogs”) indicating plurality.

Question 86

6. Morphs

Answer 86

An actual form used as a part of a word, representing one version of a morpheme. Ex. In “walked,” “walk-“ is a morph representing the verb root, and “-ed” is a morph representing past tense.

Question 87

6. Allomorphs

Answer 87

One of a closely related set of morphs. Ex. The plural morpheme “-s” can be pronounced as /s/, /z/, or /ɪz/ depending on the context (e.g., “cats,” “dogs,” “buses”).

Question 88

6. Reduplication

Answer 88

The process of repeating all or part of a form. Ex. In “boo-boo” or “night-night,” the reduplication of syllables creates new words with repeated or intensified meaning.

Question 89

7. Grammar

Answer 89

The analysis of the structure of phrases and sentences.

Question 90

7. Proper nouns

Answer 90

A noun such as “Cathy”, with an initial capital letter, used as the name of someone or something.

Question 91

7. Nouns

Answer 91

A word such as “boy”, “bicycle” or “freedom” used to describe a person, thing or idea.

Question 92

7. Articles

Answer 92

A word such as “a”, “an”, or “the” used with a noun.

Question 93

7. Adjectives

Answer 93

A word such as “happy” or “strange” used with a noun to describe more information.

Question 94

7. Verbs

Answer 94

A word such as “go”, “drown” or “know” used to describe an action, event or state.

Question 95

7. Adverbs

Answer 95

A word such as “slowly” or “really” used with a verb or adjective to provide more information.

Question 96

7. Noun phrase (NP)

Answer 96

A phrase such as “the boy” or “an old bicycle”, containing a noun plus other constituents, or a pronoun such as “him” or “it”.

Question 97

7. Prepositions

Answer 97

A word such as “in” or “with” used with a noun phrase.

Question 98

7. Pronouns

Answer 98

A word such as “it” or “them” used in place of a noun phrase.

Question 99

7. Conjunctions

Answer 99

A word such as “and” or “because” used to make connections between words, phrases and sentences.

Question 100

7. Agreement

Answer 100

The grammatical connection between two parts of a sentence, as in the connection between a subject (Cathy) and the form of a verb (loves chocolate). Here, the verb “loves” agrees with the singular subject “Cathy.”

Question 101

7. Number

Answer 101

The grammatical category of nouns as singular or plural. Ex. “Cat” or “Cats”.

Question 102

7. Person

Answer 102

The grammatical category distinguishing first person (involving the speaker, “me”, “I”), second person (involving the hearer, “you”) and third person (involving any others, “she”, “them”).

Question 103

7. Tense

Answer 103

The grammatical category distinguishing forms of the verb as present tense and past tense. “She walks” (present tense) vs. “She walked” (past tense).

Question 104

7. Active voice

Answer 104

The form of the verb used to say what the subject does. Ex. “He stole it” - “stole”.

Question 105

7. Passive voice

Answer 105

The form of the verb used to say what happens to the subject. Ex. “The car was stolen” - “was stolen”.

Question 106

7. Gender

Answer 106

A term used 3 ways: 1. Natural gender 2. Grammatical gender 3. Social gender

Question 107

7. Natural gender

Answer 107

A biological distinction between male, female or neither.

Question 108

7. Grammatical gender

Answer 108

A distinction between classes of nouns as masculine, feminine (or neuter)

Question 109

7. Social gender

Answer 109

A distinction between the social roles of men and women.

Question 110

7. Prescriptive approach

Answer 110

An approach to grammar that has rules for the proper use of the language, traditionally based on Latin grammar, in contrast to the descriptive approach. Ex. “Do not split infinitives.” This rule says you shouldn’t separate “to” from the verb, like in “to boldly go.”

Question 111

7. Descriptive approach

Answer 111

An approach to grammar that is based on a description of the structures actually used in a language, not what should be used. In contrast to the prescriptive approach. “They is coming.” Descriptive grammar just looks at how some people speak without saying if it’s right or wrong. In short, prescriptive grammar tells you what’s right or wrong, while descriptive grammar just describes how language is used without judgment.

Question 112

7. Structural analysis

Answer 112

The investigation of the distribution of grammatical forms in a language. This is like examining how different parts of a sentence change or work together. Ex. Imagine you’re studying how the tense of a verb (like “walk” becoming “walked”) changes in different sentences or situations.

Question 113

7. Constituent analysis

Answer 113

A grammatical analysis of how small constituents (or components) go together to form larger constituents in sentences. This means breaking down a sentence into its smaller pieces to understand how they fit together. Ex. Take the sentence “The cat chased the mouse.” You’d look at how “The cat,” “chased,” and “the mouse” fit together to make the whole sentence. So, “The cat” is the one doing the action (subject), “chased” is the action (verb), and “the mouse” is the one receiving the action (object). In summary, structural analysis is about studying how different parts of sentences change, while constituent analysis is about breaking down sentences into smaller parts to see how they fit together.

Question 114

7. Subject

Answer 114

The grammatical function of the noun phrase typically used before the verb to refer to who or what performs the action of the verb. Ex. “The boy stole it” - “The boy”.

Question 115

7. Object

Answer 115

The grammatical function of the noun phrase after the verb that typically undergoes the action of the verb. Ex. “The boy stole the book” - “the book”.

Question 116

7. Adjunct

Answer 116

A part of a sentence, typically an adverb or a prepositional phrase, that provides additional information about where, when and how. An adjunct adds extra details to a sentence, like when, where, or how something happens. Ex. In “She walked quickly to the store,” “quickly” tells us how she walked.

Question 117

7. Prepositional phrase (PP)

Answer 117

A phrase such as “with a dog” consisting of a preposition plus a noun phrase. A prepositional phrase includes a preposition (like “with,” “in,” “on”) and a noun phrase. Ex. “With a dog” in “He played with a dog.”

Question 118

7. Word order

Answer 118

The linear order of constituents in a sentence (ex. Subject-verb-object (SVO)), used in language typology to identify different types of languages. Ex. In “The cat chased the mouse,” the word order is Subject-Verb-Object (SVO).

Question 119

7. Language typology

Answer 119

The identification of a language as one of a specific type, often based on word order such as SVO or SOV. Ex. English follows an SVO word order, while other languages might follow different patterns like SOV (Subject-Object-Verb)

Question 120

8. Syntax

Answer 120

Syntax is the branch of linguistics that deals with the structure, order, and arrangement of words in sentences to convey meaning. It focuses on the rules and principles that govern how words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences in a language.

Question 121

8. Structural ambiguity

Answer 121

A situation in which a single phrase or sentence has two (or more) different underlying structures and interpretations. Ex. “I saw the man with the telescope.” This sentence can be interpreted in two ways: either “I saw the man using the telescope” or “I saw the man who had the telescope.”

Question 122

8. Generative grammar

Answer 122

A set of rules defining the possible sentences in a language. It tells us how to put words together to form grammatically correct sentences, like “The cat chased the mouse.”

Question 123

8. Deep structure

Answer 123

The underlying structure of sentences as represented by phrase structure rules. Think of it as the underlying plan or blueprint of a sentence. It’s the basic structure that shows how the different parts of the sentence relate to each other. In our example, it’s like knowing that “the cat” is the one doing the action, “chased” is the action itself, and “the mouse” is the one receiving the action.

Question 124

8. Surface structure

Answer 124

The structure of individual sentences in contrast to deep structure. This is what we actually see or hear when the sentence is spoken or written down. It’s the sentence in its final form. In our example, it’s the complete sentence “The cat chased the mouse” that we read or hear.

Question 125

8. Phrase structure rules

Answer 125

Rules stating that the structure of a phrase of a specific type consists of one or more constituents in a particular order. These are like guidelines that tell us how to put words together to form sentences. They specify the order and structure that sentences should follow. For instance, they might say that a sentence typically starts with a subject, followed by a verb, and then an object.

Question 126

8. Lexical rules

Answer 126

Rules stating which words can be used for constituents generated by phrase structure rules. These rules help us choose the right words to fit into the sentence structure. They tell us which words are allowed in which positions. For example, they might determine that “cat,” “chased,” and “mouse” are the correct words to use in our sentence.

Question 127

8. Tree diagrams

Answer 127

A diagram with branches showing the hierarchical organization of structures.These diagrams visually represent the hierarchical structure of a sentence, with branches indicating how phrases and words are related. For our example, a tree diagram might show “The cat” as one branch connected to “chased the mouse” as another branch, demonstrating their relationship.

Question 128

8. Movement

Answer 128

An articulatory parameter (four key aspects of visual information used in the description of signs (shape, orientation, location and movement)) in ASL describing the type of motion used in forming signs.

Question 129

9. Semantics

Answer 129

The study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.

Question 130

9. Referential meaning

Answer 130

The basic components of meaning conveyed by the literal use of words, also described as “objective” or “conceptual” meaning. Ex. In the sentence “The cat is on the mat,” the referential meaning is simply describing the spatial relationship between the cat and the mat. The literal meaning in other words.

Question 131

9. Associative meaning

Answer 131

The type of meaning that people might connect with the use of words. Ex. When you hear the word “needle,” you might associate it with pain or discomfort, even though pain is not part of its literal/referential meaning. Other ex. “Rose” - “love” or “fire” - “warmth”.

Question 132

9. Emotive meaning

Answer 132

Emotive meaning in semantics refers to the emotions or feelings that words convey beyond their literal definitions. It’s about the vibes or moods words bring up, like happy, sad, excited, or scared. Ex. The word “home”.

Question 133

9. Semantic features

Answer 133

Basic elements such as “human”, included as plus (+human) or minus (-human), used in an analysis of work meaning. Ex. “Cat” - +Animate: Indicates that the referent is living, +mammal: Specifies that the referent is a mammal, +quadruped: Indicates that the referent has four legs, -human: Specifies that the referent is not human, -bird: Indicates that the referent is not a bird.

Question 134

9. Componential analysis

Answer 134

The identification of semantic features, (ex. “+human”) as components of the meaning of a word. In essence, semantic features are the pieces of meaning, while componential analysis is the process of examining and understanding how these pieces fit together.

Question 135

9. Semantic roles

Answer 135

The part played by a noun phrase, such as agent, in the event described by the sentence, (ex. agent, instrument, experiencer, location, source, goal).

Question 136

9. Agent

Answer 136

The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying the one who performs the action of the verb in an event. Ex. “The boy kicked the ball” - “The boy”.

Question 137

9. Instrument

Answer 137

The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying the entity that is used to perform the action of the verb. Ex. “The boy cut the rope with a razor” - “A razor”.

Question 138

9. Experiencer

Answer 138

The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying the entity that has the feeling, perception or state described by the verb. Ex. “The boy feels sad” - “The boy”.

Question 139

9. Location

Answer 139

The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying where an entity is. Ex. “The boy is sitting in the classroom” - “The classroom”.

Question 140

9. Source

Answer 140

The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying where an entity moves from. Ex. “The boy ran from the house” - “The house”.

Question 141

9. Goal

Answer 141

The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying where an entity moves to. Ex. “The boy walked to the window” - “The window”.

Question 142

9. Lexical relations

Answer 142

The relationship of meaning, such as synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy, between words.

Question 143

9. Synonymy

Answer 143

The lexical relation in which two or more words have very close related meanings. Ex. “Conceal” is a synonym for “hide”).

Question 144

9. Antonymy

Answer 144

The lexical relation in which words have opposite meanings. Ex. “Shallow” is an antonym to “deep”.

Question 145

9. Gradable antonyms

Answer 145

Words with opposite meanings along a scale. Ex. “Small” - “Big”.

Question 146

9. Non-gradable antonyms

Answer 146

Words that are direct opposites. Ex. “Alive” - “Dead”.

Question 147

9. Hyponymy

Answer 147

The lexical relation in which the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another. Ex. “Daffodil” is a hyponym for “flower”.

Question 148

9. Superordinate

Answer 148

The higher level term of hyponymy. Ex. “Flower” in “Daffodil” because it’s broader.

Question 149

9. Co-hyponyms

Answer 149

Co-hyponyms are words that share the same superordinate but are not directly related to each other. In other words, they are hyponyms of the same superordinate but do not share a direct hierarchical relationship with each other. Ex. Superordinate - “fruit” & co-hyponyms - “apple”, “orange”, “banana”.

Question 150

9. Prototype

Answer 150

The most characteristic instance of a category. Ex. “Robin” is the prototype of “bird”.

Question 151

9. Homophones

Answer 151

Two or more words with different forms but same pronunciation. Ex “Two” - “Too”.

Question 152

9. Homonyms

Answer 152

Two words with the same form that are unrelated in meaning. Ex. “Mole” - meaning dot on skin or a small animal.

Question 153

9. Polysemy

Answer 153

A word having two or more related meanings. Ex. “Foot” of the bed, of a person, of a mountain.

Question 154

9. Metonymy

Answer 154

A word used in place of another with which it is closely connected in everyday experience. Ex. “He drank the whole (bottle)” = (the liquid). In this case, “bottle” stands in for the liquid itself, indicating what was consumed without explicitly mentioning the specific liquid. Metonymy is a common linguistic device that adds variety and depth to language by allowing speakers to convey meaning indirectly through closely related terms.

Question 155

9. Collocation

Answer 155

A relationship with words that frequently occur together. Ex. “Salt & pepper” but also “Golden & opportunity”.

Question 156

9. Corpus linguistics

Answer 156

The study of language in use by analyzing the occurrence and frequency of forms in a large collection of texts typically stored in a computer. Suppose researchers want to study how the word “love” is used in English literature. They would compile a corpus of novels, poems, and other literary texts, then use computer software to analyze how often “love” appears, how it’s used in different contexts, and which words often co-occur with it.

Question 157

9. Concordance

Answer 157

A listing of each occurrence of a word or phrase in a corpus along with the words surrounding it. A concordance is a specific tool or output used in corpus linguistics. It is a detailed listing or index of every occurrence of a particular word or phrase within a corpus, along with the surrounding words or context.

Question 158

10. Pragmatics

Answer 158

The study of speaker meaning and how more is communicated than said.

Question 159

10. Physical context

Answer 159

The situation, time or place in which words are said.

Question 160

10. Linguistic context / Co-text

Answer 160

The set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence. It provides immediate linguistic context that aids in understanding the intended message or interpretation of the language being used.

Question 161

10. Deictic

Answer 161

Gestures used to point at things or people. Ex. Physically pointing at a dog.

Question 162

10. Deixis (deictic expressions)

Answer 162

Using words such as “this” or “here” as a way of pointing to something through language.

Question 163

10. Reference

Answer 163

The act by which a speaker/writer uses language to enable a listener/reader to identify something or someone. Ex. Saying “the big dog” helps the listener know which dog you’re talking about.

Question 164

10. Inference

Answer 164

Additional information used by a listener/reader to create a connection between what is said and what must be meant. Ex. “She grabbed an umbrella.” From this statement alone, we can infer that it might be raining outside.

Question 165

10. Anaphora (anaphoric expressions)

Answer 165

Use of the pronouns (it) and the noun phrases with the (the puppy) to refer back to something already mentioned. Ex. In the sentence “The puppy chased its tail,” “its” refers back to “the puppy.”

Question 166

10. Antecedent

Answer 166

The first mention of someone or something later referred to via anaphora. Ex. In the sentence “The puppy chased its tail,” “the puppy” is the antecedent of “its.”

Question 167

10. Cataphora

Answer 167

Similar to anaphora, but reversing the antecedent-anaphora relationship, often beginning with a pronoun and a descriptive noun phrase later. Ex. “He loved them, the cookies on the counter”, starts with “them” and then clarifies with “the cookies”.

Question 168

10. Presupposition

Answer 168

An assumption by a speaker/writer about what is true or already known by the listener/reader. Ex. “John regretted eating the last cookie.” This sentence presupposes that there was a last cookie to be eaten or “Tom has fewer friends than he used to.” This sentence presupposes that Tom had more friends in the past.

Question 169

10. Pragmatic markers

Answer 169

Short expressions such as, “you know”, “I mean”, or “well”, that indicate the speaker’s attitude to the listener or the utterance.

Question 170

10. Tautology

Answer 170

An expression (often a saying) that seems simply to repeat an element with no apparent meaning. Ex. “Boys will be boys” or “a sandwich is a sandwich”.

Question 171

10. Hedges

Answer 171

A word or a phrase used to indicate that you are not really sure that what you are saying is sufficiently correct or complete. Words or phrases used to express uncertainty or caution. Ex. “I think,” “maybe,” or “sort of” are hedges.

Question 172

10. Co-operative principle

Answer 172

An underlying assumption of conversation that you will “make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”. In other words it’s the general guideline that participants in a conversation are expected to follow. It assumes that speakers will contribute relevant information and that listeners will interpret the contributions accordingly. This principle ensures effective communication and mutual understanding.

Question 173

10. Implicature

Answer 173

An additional meaning conveyed by a speaker adhering to the co-operative principle. Ex. If someone says, “It’s getting late,” during a conversation, the implicature may be that they want to wrap up the discussion and conclude the interaction. While the literal meaning of the statement is simply an observation about the time, the implicature suggests a desire to end the conversation.

Question 174

10. Face (in pragmatics)

Answer 174

A person’s public self-image as described in the study of politeness. Ex. Being polite preserves someone’s face.

Question 175

10. Politeness

Answer 175

Showing awareness and consideration to another person’s public self-image. Ex. Showing consideration for someone’s face, like saying “please” or “thank you” is polite.

Question 176

10. Face-threatening act

Answer 176

Saying something that represents a threat to another person’s self-image. Ex. Saying something that might damage someone’s self-image, like criticizing someone’s work.

Question 177

10. Face-saving act

Answer 177

Saying something that reduces a possible threat to another person’s self-image. Ex. Saying something to avoid threatening someone’s self-image, like saying “I appreciate your effort, but…”

Question 178

10. Negative face

Answer 178

The need to be independent and free from imposition, in contrast to positive face. Ex. Wanting independence and freedom from imposition, like saying “I’d rather do it myself.”

Question 179

10. Positive face

Answer 179

The need to be connected, to belong, to be a member of a group, in contrast to negative face. Ex. Wanting connection and belonging, like saying “We should do this together.”

Question 180

10. Speech act

Answer 180

An action such as “promising” performed by a speaker with an utterance, either as a direct speech act or an indirect speech act. Performing an action with words. Saying “I promise” or “Can you pass the salt?” are speech acts.

Question 181

10. Direct speech act

Answer 181

An action in which the form used (ex. interrogative) directly matches the function (ex. question) performed by a speaker with an utterance. Ex. Asking “Can you pass the salt?” to request salt. Form directly matches function.

Question 182

10. Indirect speech act

Answer 182

An action in which the form used (ex. interrogative) does not directly match the function (ex. request) performed by a speaker with an utterance. Ex. Saying “It’s cold in here” to indirectly ask someone to close a window. Form doesn’t directly match function.

Question 183

11. Discourse Analysis

Answer 183

The study of language, beyond the sentence, in text and conversation. Ex. Analyzing a political debate to understand how candidates take turns speaking, how they respond to each other’s arguments, and how they structure their arguments to persuade the audience.

Question 184

11. Cohesion

Answer 184

The ties and connections between words that exist within texts. Ex. In a paragraph about the beach, cohesive elements might include words like “sand,” “waves,” “sun,” and “seagulls,” which create a cohesive picture of the beach environment.

Question 185

11. Cohesive ties

Answer 185

The individual connection between words that exist within texts. Cohesive ties are the specific connections between individual words or phrases within a text that contribute to its overall cohesion. Ex. In the sentence “The cat chased the mouse,” the cohesive tie between “cat” and “chased” creates coherence by linking the subject and action of the sentence.

Question 186

11. Coherence

Answer 186

The connections that readers and listeners create in their minds to arrive at a meaningful interpretation of texts. Ex. In a well-written story, coherence ensures that each event and detail contributes logically to the overall plot and theme, allowing readers to follow the narrative smoothly and understand its deeper message.

Question 187

11. Turns (at speaking)

Answer 187

In conversation, the unit of talk by one speaker, ended by the beginning of the next speaker’s unit of talk. A turn refers to the portion of speech produced by one speaker in a conversation. In a dialogue, each time someone speaks without interruption, it’s considered a turn. For example, if someone says, “I went to the store yesterday,” and then pauses, that’s one complete turn.

Question 188

11. Completion point

Answer 188

In conversation, the end of a turn, usually marked by a paus at the end of a phrase or sentence. This is the natural pause or endpoint that occurs at the end of a speaker’s turn in a conversation. It’s usually marked by a slight break or the completion of a thought. For instance, after saying, “I went to the store yesterday,” the speaker might pause, indicating that their turn is complete.

Question 189

11. Turn-taking

Answer 189

The way in which each speaker takes a turn in conversation. Ex. One person speaks while the others listen, and then they switch roles. In a group discussion, turn-taking ensures that everyone has a chance to contribute their ideas.

Question 190

11. Filled pauses

Answer 190

A break in the flow of speech, usings sounds such as “ um”, “em”, or “er”. Often when searching for words.

Question 191

11. Adjacency pair

Answer 191

In conversation, an automatic sequence of a first part from one speaker and second part from another speaker. Ex. “How are you?” - “Fine, thanks”. These are common in everyday language and often predictable.

Question 192

11. Insertion sequence

Answer 192

In conversation, an adjacency pair that comes between the first and second parts of another pair. An insertion sequence often involves an unexpected or non-predictable response that disrupts the typical flow of conversation, either by changing the topic or introducing new information that may not directly relate to the ongoing exchange. Ex. “Would you like some tea?” - “Actually, I prefer coffee”. Instead of the classic, “yes, please”.

Question 193

11. Background knowledge

Answer 193

Information that is not in a text, but is used from memory by a reader to understand the text. Ex. Understanding a news article about a scientific discovery may require background knowledge of related scientific concepts.

Question 194

11. Schema

Answer 194

A conventional knowledge structure in memory for specific things, such as a supermarket (food is displayed on shelves, arranged in aisles, etc). Another example: Your schema for a movie theater might include your understanding that it typically consists of features (physical) like a ticket counter, concession stand, rows of seats facing a screen, and exits.

Question 195

11. Script

Answer 195

A conventional knowledge structure in memory for the series of actions involved in events such as “going to the dentist”. Another example: Your script for going to the movies might involve actions like buying tickets at the counter, purchasing snacks at the concession stand, finding your seat in the theater, watching the movie, and exiting the theater after it’s finished.

Question 196

12. Neurolinguistics

Answer 196

The study of the relationship between language and the brain.

Question 197

12. Broca’s area

Answer 197

A part of the brain in the left hemisphere involved in speech production.

Question 198

12. Wernicke’s area

Answer 198

A part of the brain in the left hemisphere involved in language comprehension.

Question 199

12. Motor cortex

Answer 199

A part of the brain that controls muscle movement. When you talk or move, the motor cortex is at work.

Question 200

12. Arcuate fasciculus (“the curved bundle”)

Answer 200

A bundle of nerve fibers connecting the Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area in the left hemisphere of the brain.

Question 201

12. Localization view

Answer 201

The belief that specific aspects of linguistic ability have specific locations in the brain. Ex. One part may help us speak and one part helps us understand.

Question 202

12. Tip of the tongue

Answer 202

The experience of knowing a word, but being unable to access it and bring it to the surface in order to say it.

Question 203

12. Malapropisms

Answer 203

A speech error in which one word is used instead of another with a similar beginning, end and number of syllables. Ex. “medication” instead of “meditation”.

Question 204

12. Slip of the tongue

Answer 204

A speech error in which a sound or word is produced in the wrong place.

Question 205

12. Spoonerisms

Answer 205

A slip of the tongue in which two parts of words or two words are switched. Ex. “A dog of bag food” instead of “a bag of dog food”.

Question 206

12. Perseveration

Answer 206

A type of slip of the tongue in which a sound carries over from one word to the following word or words. Ex. “Black bloxes” instead of “black boxes”.

Question 207

12. Anticipation

Answer 207

A type of slip of the tongue in which a sound is used in a word in anticipation of that sound in a following word. Ex. “A tup of tea” instead of “a cup of tea”.

Question 208

12. Exchange

Answer 208

A type of slip of the tongue in which sounds in two words are switched. Ex. “You’ll soon beel fetter” instead of “feel better”.

Question 209

12. Slips of the ear

Answer 209

A processing error in which one word or phrase is heard as another. Ex. Hearing “great ape” when the utterance was “gray tape”.

Question 210

12. Aphasia

Answer 210

An impairment of language function due to localized brain damage that leads to difficulty in understanding and/or producing language.

Question 211

12. Broca’s aphasia

Answer 211

A language disorder in which speech production is typically reduced, distorted, slow and missing grammatical markers. Ex. They might say, “Me go store,” instead of “I’m going to the store”. They struggle to find words and speak slowly.

Question 212

12. Agrammatic speech

Answer 212

A type of speech without grammatical markers, often associated with Broca’s aphasia. It refers to the way sentences are formed. People with agrammatic speech have trouble using grammatical structures correctly. Their sentences may be short and lack function words (like “is,” “the,” “and”), resulting in a telegraphic or choppy speech pattern.

Question 213

12. Wernicke’s aphasia

Answer 213

A language disorder in which comprehension is typically slow. Individuals with Wernicke’s aphasia may produce speech that is fluent and grammatically correct, but it is often nonsensical and lacks meaning. They may also have difficulty understanding spoken and written language.

Question 214

12. Anomia

Answer 214

A language disorder in which it is difficult to find words, often associated with Wernicke’s aphasia. Individuals with anomia may have trouble recalling specific words or names when needed, even though they understand the concept they want to express. For example, they might struggle to name common objects like “table” or “pencil” despite being familiar with these items.

Question 215

12. Conduction aphasia

Answer 215

A language disorder associated with damage to the arcuate fasciculus in which repeating words or phrases is difficult. People with conduction aphasia typically have relatively preserved language comprehension and production abilities but struggle with repeating words or phrases accurately.

Question 216

12. Dichotic listening test

Answer 216

An experiment in which a listener hears two different sounds simultaneously, each through a different earphone.

Question 217

12. Right-ear advantage

Answer 217

The fact that humans typically hear speech sounds more readily via the right ear.

Question 218

12. Lateralization

Answer 218

Divided into a left side and a right side, with control of functions on one side or the other (used in describing the human brain). The left hemisphere is often associated with language, logical reasoning, and analytical thinking and the right hemisphere is often associated with spatial awareness, creativity, and emotional processing.

Question 219

12. Critical period

Answer 219

The time from birth to puberty during which normal first language acquisition can take place. It’s the important time in childhood when your brain is best at learning new languages. If you miss this time, it’s harder to learn later on.

Question 220

13. Acquisition

Answer 220

The gradual development of ability in a first or second language by using it naturally in communicative situations. Ex. A child learning to speak by interacting with family members is an example of language acquisition.

Question 221

13. Input

Answer 221

The language that an acquirer/learner is exposed to.

Question 222

13. Output

Answer 222

The language produced by an acquirer/learner.

Question 223

13. Cooing

Answer 223

The earliest use of speech-like sounds by an infant in the first few months. Cooing sounds are characterized by vowel sounds and soft consonant-like noises, and they’re often made in response to stimuli or as a form of self-soothing.

Question 224

13. Babbling

Answer 224

The use of syllable sequences (baba) and combinations (ma-ga) by young children in their first year.

Question 225

13. One-word stage

Answer 225

The period in L1 (first language acquired as a child) acquisition when children can produce single terms for objects. Ex. A child might say “dog” when they see a dog or “milk” when they want to drink milk.

Question 226

13. Holophrastic

Answer 226

A single form functioning as a phrase or sentence in the early speech of young children. Holophrastic speech refers to the use of a single word to convey a more extensive meaning, similar to a phrase or sentence. For instance, a child might say “juice” to mean “I want some juice” or “Give me juice.”

Question 227

13. Two-word stage

Answer 227

A period beginning at around 18-20 months when children produce two terms together as an utterance. Ex. “More milk”.

Question 228

13. Telegraphic speech

Answer 228

Strings of words (lexical morphemes without inflectional morphemes) in phrases like “Mommy go byebye” produced by two-year-old children.

Question 229

13. Overgeneralization

Answer 229

In L1 acquisition, using an inflectional morpheme on more words than is usual in the language. Overgeneralization occurs when a child applies a grammatical rule too broadly, resulting in incorrect forms. Ex. “Two foots” instead of “two feet”.

Question 230

13. Overextension

Answer 230

In L1 acquisition, using a word to refer to more objects than is usual in the language. This happens when a child uses a word to refer to a broader category of objects than is typical in the language. Ex. Using the word “ball” to refer to any round object, including the moon or a balloon.