Lab Final Flashcards
What is the function of the respiratory system?
functions to supply the body w oxygen and dispose of carbon dioxide, occurs through respiration
Pulmonary Ventilation
movement of air into and out of the lungs; breathing
External Respiration
exchange of gasses in the lungs
Transport of Respiratory Gases
circulatory system carries oxygen to the tissues of the body and carbon dioxide to the lungs for excretion
Internal Respiration
exchange of respiratory gasses between the blood and the body tissues; oxygen is unloaded, carbon dioxide is unloaded
Right lung has _ lobes
3
Left lung has _ lobes and _____ ______.
2, cardiac notch
Describe the trachea under a microscope
pseudo stratified ciliated columnar epithelium, hyaline cartilage
Describe the lung under a microscope
alveoli, alveolar sacs
Define inspiration
the phase which air is taken into the lungs
Define expiration
the phase which air passes out of the lungs
What is a spirometer?
device used to measure respiratory volumes
What is tidal volume?
normal quiet breathing
Vital capacity
total amount of exchangeable air; maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximal inspiration
Expiratory Reserve Volume
amount of air that can be expelled from the lungs after a normal tidal volume expirations
Inspiratory Reserve Volume
amount of air that can be inhaled forcibly beyond the tidal volume; forced inspiration after normal inspiration
Minute Respiratory Volume
tidal volume multiplied by respiration per minute
Residual Volume
about 1200ml of air that remains in the lungs which helps to keep the alveoli open and prevent lung collapse
Total Lung Capacity
the sum of all lung volumes
(T/F) The respiratory system and circulatory system work together to supply tissues with oxygen and rid tissues of carbon dioxide.
true
Loading
movement of gas into the blood
Unloading
movement of gas outside of the blood
What is the conduction zone?
respiratory passageways that provide rigid conduits for air to reach; also cleanses and humidifies air coming in
What is the respiratory zone?
the actual site of gas exchange, composed primarily of respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli
What is the purpose of the epiglottis?
keeps food out of the respiratory pathways by covering trachea and directing it toward the esophagus
What is the purpose of the vocal folds?
vibrates and produces sound/voice as air rushes up from the lugs
What is the purpose of the glottis?
opens and closes during vibrations; functions in speech development and pronunciation
What is the pleura and its purpose?
thin double layered serosa that produces serous fluid for lubrication; reducing friction
What is the parietal pleura?
outer layer that covers the thoracic wall and superior face of the diaphragm
What is the visceral pleura?
inner layer that covers the external lung surface dipping into and lining its fissures
What is inspiration?
the phase which air is taken into the lungs
What is expiration?
the phase which air passes out of the lungs
What is a spirometer?
device used to measure respiratory volumes
Describe tidal volume
normal quiet breathing under resting conditions
What is vital capacity?
maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximal inspiration
What is expiratory reserve volume?
amount of air that can be expelled from the lungs after a normal tidal volume expiration
What is inspiratory reserve volume
the amount of air inspired after a normal inspiration
What is minute respiratory volume?
total volume multiplied by respiration per minute
(TV x respirations/min)
What is residual volume?
air that remains in the lungs which helps to keep the alveoli open and prevent lung collapse
What is total lung capacity?
the sum of all lung volumes
Describe what occurs when a person inspires
the diaphragm contracts and the external intercostal muscles contract
^raises the rib cage increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity which decreases the pressure
When volume __________, pressure decreases
increases
When volume decreases, pressure __________.
increases
Describe what occurs when a person expires
the diaphragm relaxes so lengthens, the external intercostal muscles relax and the rib cage descends decreasing volume
What is intrapulmonary pressure?
pressure in the alveoli
What is intrapleural pressure?
pressure in the pleural cavity
When the diaphragm goes up and the rib cage goes down the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases and the pressure increases. This causes
air to rush out of the lungs
What are bronchial sounds?
produced by air rushing through the large respiratory passageways(trachea and bronchi)
What are vesicular breathing sounds?
air filling the alveolar sac and resembles the sound of a rustling or muffled breeze
Describe the the of a microscope slide of trachea
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, hyaline cartilage
Describe what happens during inspiration
-ribs are elevated
-sternum flares as external intercostals contract
-diaphragm moves inferiorly during contraction
Describe what happens during expiration.
-ribs and sternum are depressed, as external intercostals relax
-diaphragm moves superiorly as it relaxes
Quiet breathing moves about ____ ml in and out of the lungs with each breath.
500
Describe what occurs during quiet expiration.
-inspiratory muscles relax, which causes the diaphragm to rise superiorly and chest wall to move inward
What is enzymatic hydrolysis?
the addition of a water molecule to break bonds
What is absorption?
passage through cells lining the GI tract into the blood
What is digestion?
break down food into smaller fragments either physically or chemically
What do enzymes in the digestive system do?
catalyze hydrolysis
What are the functions of the digestive system?
-ingest food
-ingest water
-gets rid of undigested wastes
-break down food
-absorb food
What are the two major groups of the digestive system?
- alimentary canal/gastrointestinal tract
- accessory digestive organs
Describe the alimentary canal/GI tract and what it consists of.
-about 9 meters long
-a continuous muscular tube that winds through the body from mouth to anus
-consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and small & large intestines
Describe the accessory digestive organs and what they consist of.
-produce a variety of secretions that help break down food
-consist of teeth, tongue, gallbladder, and large digestive glands(salivary), liver, and pancreas
In regard to the alimentary canal, beginning with the lumen and working outward, the tunics are:
- mucosa
- submucosa
- muscular externa
- serosa
Describe the mucosa tunica of the alimentary tract and its functions
-epithelium, lamina propria(areolar connective tissue), muscular mucosae(smooth muscle that allows localized movement
-Functions: secretion, absorptions, protection
Describe the submucosa tunica of the alimentary tract and its functions
-dense connective tissue with blood and lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and nerve fibers
-Functions: holds the blood and lymphatic vessels that supply the tissues surrounding it
Describe the muscularis externa of the alimentary tract and its functions
-two layers of smooth muscle(deep circular, superficial longitudinal)
-Functions: segmentation and peristalsis, intrinsic control of the digestive tract, includes muscle and myenteric nerve plexus, circular muscles form sphincters in some areas
Describe the serosa tunica of the alimentary tract and its functions.
protective, outermost layer
What is ingestion?
simply taking in food into the digestive tract
Define mastication
chewing
Define deglutition
swallowing
What is propulsion?
moves the food through the alimentary canal, includes swallowing which is initially voluntary and peristalsis
What is peristalsis?
major means of propulsion; involves alternating waves of contraction and relaxation of muscles in organ walls
What is mechanical breakdown?
-increases the surface area of ingested food, physically, preparing it for digestion by enzymes
-includes chewing, mixing foods with saliva, churning food in stomach, and segmentation
What is segmentation?
mixes food with digestive juices and makes absorption more efficient by repeatedly moving different parts of the food mass over the intestinal wall
What is digestion?
a series of catabolic steps in which enzymes secreted into the lumen of the alimentary canal break down complex food molecules to their chemical building blocks
What is absorption?
passageway of digested end products(vitamins, water, minerals) from the lumen of the GI tract through the mucosal cells by active or passive transports into the blood or lymph
What is defecation?
eliminates indigestive substances from the body via the anus in the form of feces
The suffix -ase means
enzyme
What is amylose
starch
Describe the hard palate
underlain by maxillary and palatine bones, formed a rigid surface against which the tongue forces food during chewing
Describe the soft palate
mostly skeletal muscle and it helps it to close off the nasopharynx when we swallow
Describe the tonsils
-palatine & lingual
-palatine are largest & most commonly infected
-tonsils gather and remove many pathogens entering the pharynx in food or inhaled air
What is tonsilitis?
enlarged and inflamed tonsils and partially block the entrance to the pharynx making swallowing difficult and painful
What is the purpose of the tongue?
-during chewing, it grips the food and constantly repositions it between the teeth
-mixes food with saliva forming it into a mass called a bolus
-initiates swallowing by pushing by pushing bolus back into pharynx to be swallowed
What is a bolus?
a compact mass of food mixed with saliva formed by the tongue
What are the gingivae?
gums
What is the lingual frenulum?
secures the tongue to the floor of the mouth and limits its posterior movements
What is the pharynx?
common passageway for food, fluid, and air; located just posterior to the mouth, which leads to the esophagus
The pharynx consists of
nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx
From the mouth, food passes into the __________ and then to the ____________ (both common passageways for food, fluids and air)
oropharynx; laryngopharynx
-nasopharynx plays no digestive role
Describe the esophagus
muscular tube about 25cm long that allows food to pass from the mouth to the stomach; no function in digestion or absorption
What is heartburn?
burning, radiating substernal pain that occurs when stomach acid regurgitates into the esophagus
Where is the stomach located?
at the end of the esophagus in the upper left quadrant of the abdominal cavity
Describe the stomach
temporary storage tank where mechanical/chemical breakdown of bolus continues; bolus is converted to a creamy paste called chyme
List the stomach regions
-cardiac region
-fundus
-body
-pyloric region
Describe the cardiac region of the stomach
(near the heart) surrounds the cardial orifice where food enters the stomach from the esophagus
Describe the funds of the stomach
Stomach’s dome shape part, tucked beneath the diaphragm
Describe the body of the stomach
midportion of the stomach
Describe the pyloric region of the stomach
pyloric antrum, pyloric canal, and pyloric sphincter
What are the gastric gland secretions of the stomach?
hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen breakdown proteins
What is the purpose of the mucosal gland secretions?
secrete mucus that prevents the stomach from being digested by the gastric gland secretions
Vomiting is
emesis
What structure is responsible for producing gastric juice?
gastric pits that lead into gastric glands
The mesenteries are composed of
the lesser and greater omentum
The mesenteries are
Double layer of peritoneum/ sheet of 2 serous membranes fused back to back
The pyloric sphincter is responsible for
controlling stomach emptying and is located at the end of the stomach entering the small intestine
The rugae are
wrinkly folds in the stomach that appear when stomach is empty and disappear when the stomach is full; what is responsible for growling
Emesis can be caused by
bacterial toxins, excessive alcohol, spicy foods, certain drugs
Intrinsic factor is responsible for
absorption of vitamin B12
Vitamin B12 is needed for
the production of mature erythrocytes; in its absence pernicious anemia results
What is the overall function of the digestive system?
break down food into small molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body, while also eliminating waste products
Identify the structures of the oral cavity and their functions
structures of the oral cavity include the hard and soft palates, the uvula, the tonsils (palatine and lingual), the gums, teeth, tongue, and openings of the salivary gland ducts. The oral cavity is where food enters the digestive tract
Identify the structures of the pharynx and their functions
The pharynx is a common passageway for food, fluid, and air, located just posterior to the mouth
What is the function of the esophagus?
The esophagus is a food passageway to the stomach. Food conduction is achieved through peristalsis, but it does not function in digestion or absorption
Identify the structures of the stomach and their functions.
stomach is located in the upper left quadrant of the abdominal cavity and is a temporary “storage tank” where chemical breakdown of protein begins, and food is converted to chyme. Structures include the cardiac region, body, pyloric sphincter, lesser curvature, greater curvature, gastric pits, gastric glands, fundus, pyloric region, rugae, lesser omentum, and greater omentum
Identify the subdivisions of the small intestine and their functions.
The small intestine is a convoluted tube extending from the pyloric sphincter to the iliocecal valve, suspended by a double layer of peritoneum, the fan-shaped mesentery, and is the site of nearly all nutrient absorption. Its three subdivisions are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
Identify the subdivisions of the large intestine and their functions.
The large intestine extends to the anus, absorbs water from indigestible food residues delivered in a fluid state, and eliminates them from the body as semisolid feces. Its subdivisions are the cecum, vermiform appendix, colon (ascending, descending, transverse, and sigmoid), rectum, and anal canal.
Define the terms teniae coli, haustra, goblet cells, brush border enzymes, microvilli, and villi.
Teniae coli are three longitudinal bands of smooth muscle in the large intestine that contract to produce haustra, the pouches that give the colon its puckered appearance. Goblet cells are specialized columnar epithelial cells that produce mucus. Brush border enzymes are enzymes produced by the microvilli of the small intestine that aid in the final stages of digestion. Microvilli are small projections on the surface of absorptive cells in the small intestine. Villi are fingerlike projections of the mucosa in the small intestine that increase surface area for absorption.
Identify the accessory digestive organs and their functions.
Accessory digestive organs include the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. The salivary glands produce saliva to moisten and digest food, the liver produces bile to aid in fat digestion and metabolism, the gallbladder stores and releases bile, and the pancreas produces digestive enzymes and hormones to regulate blood sugar levels.
Pancreas: What is the function of the acinar cells?
They produce and secrete digestive enzymes such as amylase, lipase, and trypsinogen into the pancreatic duct for release into the small intestine.
Pancreas: What is the function of the alpha and beta cells of the pancreatic islets?
The alpha cells produce and secrete the hormone glucagon, which raises blood glucose levels. The beta cells produce and secrete the hormone insulin, which lowers blood glucose levels.
General microscopic structure of the alimentary canal wall: mucosa
a wet epithelial membrane abutting the lumen that consists of 1) surface epithelium, 2) lamina propria, and 3) muscularis mucosae
General microscopic structure of the alimentary canal wall: submucosa
superficial to mucosa; moderately dense connective tissue containing blood and lymphatic vessels, scattered lymph nodes, and nerve fibers.
General microscopic structure of the alimentary canal wall: muscular externa
bilayer of smooth muscle, with the deeper layer running circularly and the superficial layer running longitudinally.
General microscopic structure of the alimentary canal wall: serosa
consists of mesothelium associated with a thin layer of areolar connective tissue; located within the abdominopelvic cavity
General microscopic structure of the alimentary canal wall: adventitia
layer of coarse fibrous connective tissue that binds the organ to surrounding tissues; located outside the abdominopelvic cavity
Plica circulares:
circular folds in the mucosa and submucosa of the small intestine that increase surface area for absorption.
Villi:
finger-like projections of the mucosa in the small intestine that further increase surface area for absorption.
Microvilli:
tiny projections on the surface of absorptive cells in the small intestine that further increase surface area for absorption
Major enzyme produced by salivary gland:
amylase
Major enzyme produced by stomach:
pepsin and hydrochloric acid
Major enzyme produced by small intestine
amylase, lipase, trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and peptidases
Major enzymes produced by pancreas
amylase, lipase, trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and pancreatic nuclease
Deciduous (milk) teeth consist of
central incisors, lateral incisors, canines, first molars, and second molars.
Permanent teeth consist of
central incisors, lateral incisors, canines, first premolars (bicuspids), second premolars (bicuspids), first molars, second molars, third molars (wisdom teeth).
General structure of teeth: crown
the exposed part of the tooth above the gum line
General structure of a tooth: enamel
the hard, outermost layer of the tooth
General structure of a tooth: neck
part of the tooth between the crown and the root
General structure of a tooth: dentin
the hard, bonelike tissue that makes up the bulk of the tooth
General structure of a tooth: root
the part of the tooth below the gum line that anchors it to the jawbone
General structure of a tooth: root canal
the hollow space in the root that contains nerves and blood vessels
Microscope slides and histologic structures: root
cementum, pulp
Microscope slides and histologic structures: pulp cavity
the space in the center of the tooth that contains nerves and blood vessels
Microscope slides and histologic structures: gingivae
The gums
Esophagus wall layers
mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, adventitia
Stomach wall layers
mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa; gastric pits and glands
Small intestine wall layers
mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa; Brunner
Describe the kidneys
bean-shaped organs located in the back of the abdomen that filter blood and produce urine
Describe the ureters
muscular tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder
Describe the bladder
muscular sac that temporarily stores urine until it is ready to be expelled
Describe the urethra
tube that transports urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. In males, it also serves as a passage for semen
Describe the adrenal glands
small glands located on top of each kidney that produce hormones, including adrenaline and cortisol
List the functions of the urinary system
-Regulate blood volume and blood pressure.
-Removing waste products from the body, including urea, creatinine, and uric acid.
-Regulate electrolyte and acid-base balance.
-Produce and regulating hormones that affect blood pressure, red blood cell production, and calcium balance.
-Regulate water balance in the body.
What is the basic functional unit of the kidney
nephron
List the structures that make up a nephron
glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct
Describe the glomerulus of the nephron
tuft of capillaries that filters blood
Describe the Bowman’s capsule of the nephron
cup-like structure that surrounds the glomerulus and collects filtrate
Describe the proximal convoluted tubule of the nephron
first segment of the renal tubule that reabsorbs water, ions, and nutrients from the filtrate
Describe the loop of Henle of the nephron
long, U-shaped segement of the renal tubule that creates a concentration gradient in the kidney, allowing for water and electrolyte reabsorption
Describe the distal convoluted tubule of the nephron
segment of the renal tubule that fine-tunes electrolyte and acid base balance by secreting and reabsorbing ions
Describe the collecting ducts of the nephron
structure that receives urine from multiple nephrons and carries it to the renal pelvis
Differences in function and length of urethra in males and females
-Male urethra is longer and has dual functions (urinary and reproductive)
-Female urethra is shorter and only has a urinary function
Blood supply of the kidney
Aorta → Renal artery → Segmental artery* → Interlobar artery → Arcuate artery → Cortical radiate artery → Afferent arteriole → Glomerulus (capillaries) → Efferent arteriole → Peritubular capillaries or vasa recta → Cortical radiate vein → Arcuate vein → Interlobar vein → Renal vein → Inferior vena cava
(*note: there is no Segmental vein in the kidney)
Nephron structures:
-Each nephron has a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule
-Renal corpuscle consists of the glomerulus and the glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule
-Visceral wall of the glomerular capsule consists of podocytes
-Loop of Henle extends into the medulla in some nephrons
-Collecting ducts receive urine from the nephrons
Processes involved in urine formation in nephrons
- glomerular filtration
2.tubular reabsorption - tubular secretion
Glomerular filtration
passive process where blood passes from glomerular bed into glomerular capsule, filtrate enters proximal convoluted tubule
Tubular reabsorption
components of filtrate (e.g. water, glucose, amino acids, ions) move through tubule cells and return to blood in peritubular capillaries, most reabsorption occurs in proximal convoluted tubule
Tubular secretion
substances (e.g. hydrogen, potassium ions and creatine) move either from blood of peritubular capillaries through tubular cells or from tubular cells into filtrate to be disposed of in urine
Define micturition(voiding)
the process in which urine empties from the bladder
Define incontinence
the lack of voluntary control over the external sphincter
What is the internal urethral sphincter
consists of involuntary smooth muscle and is involved in the reflexive control of micturition
What is the external urethral sphincter
consists of voluntary skeletal muscle and is under conscious control. It allows for the temporary inhibition of micturition reflexes until it is convenient to void
What are physical characteristics of urine?
color, odor, transparency, volume, pH, and specific gravity
What is the normal pH of urine?
4.6-6.0
What substances are normal urinary constituents?
water, urea, creatinine, uric acid, electrolytes, ammonia, hormones, waste products, metabolites
Define albuminuria
presence of albumin (a protein) in the urine, indicating damage to the glomerular filtration barrier in the kidney
Define calculi
kidney stones or urinary tract stones, which are typically made of minerals and salts that can crystallize and accumulate in the urinary system
Define casts
cylindrical structures that can form in the kidney tubules and become trapped in the urine. Different types of casts can indicate various kidney conditions
Define glycosuria
the presence of glucose (sugar) in the urine, which can indicate diabetes or other metabolic disorders
Define hematuria
the presence of red blood cells in the urine, which can indicate kidney or bladder infections, kidney stones, or other conditions
Define hemoglobinuria
presence of hemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells) in the urine, which can indicate hemolytic anemia or other conditions
Define ketonuria
the presence of ketones (byproducts of fat metabolism) in the urine, which can indicate diabetes or other metabolic disorders
Define pyuria
the presence of white blood cells (pus) in the urine, which can indicate an infection in the urinary system
Define gamete
a reproductive cell (sperm or egg) that fuses with another gamete during fertilization to form a zygote
Define spermatogenesis
the process of producing mature sperm cells from spermatogonia (stem cells) through meiosis and spermiogenesis
Define haploid
having one set of chromosomes (n) instead of two sets (2n) as in diploid cells
Define crossover
the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis
Define gametogenesis
the process of forming gametes (sperm or egg cells)
Define homologous chromosomes
a pair of chromosomes that have the same genes at the same loci, one inherited from each parent
Define sister chromatids
two identical copies of a chromosome that are joined together by a centromere.
Define diploid
having two sets of chromosomes (2n) in each cell, one inherited from each parent.
Define spermiogenesis
the process of maturing haploid spermatids into fully functional sperm cells.
Define meiosis
a type of cell division that produces haploid gametes with genetic diversity
Define oogenesis
the process of producing mature egg cells from oogonia (stem cells) through meiosis and follicle development
Define synapsis
the pairing and physical connection of homologous chromosomes during meiosis
Define menstruation
the shedding of the uterine lining during the menstrual cycle
Identify the stages of spermatogenesis
- Spermatogonium
- Primary spermatocyte
- Secondary spermatocyte
- Early spermatid
- Late spermatid
- Sperm cell
Define primary follicle
an immature ovarian follicle consisting of an oocyte surrounded by a single layer of follicular cells
Define a secondary follicle
a developing ovarian follicle consisting of an oocyte surrounded by multiple layers of follicular cells and a fluid-filled cavity called the antrum
Define antrum
the fluid-filled cavity within a mature ovarian follicle
Define ovum
a mature egg cell that is released from the ovary during ovulation
Define vesicular follicle
a mature ovarian follicle that is ready to release an ovum during ovulation
Define corpus luteum
a temporary endocrine structure that forms from the remnants of a mature ovarian follicle after ovulation. It produces the hormones progesterone and estrogen
Identify the stages of oogenesis and follicle development
- Oogonium
- Primary oocyte
- Secondary oocyte
- Mature ovum
The stages of follicle development include
- Primordial follicle
- Primary follicle
- Secondary follicle
- Vesicular (Graafian) follicle
List the differences between mitosis and meiosis
-Mitosis produces two genetically identical daughter cells, while meiosis produces four genetically different daughter cells
-Mitosis has one round of division, while meiosis has two rounds of division
-Mitosis occurs in somatic cells, while meiosis occurs in germ cells
-Mitosis has no pairing of homologous chromosomes, while meiosis has homologous chromosomes paired in the first round of division
-Mitosis has no crossing over, while meiosis has crossing over in the first round of division
List similarities between spermatogensis and oogenesis
-Both spermatogenesis and oogenesis are processes of gametogenesis, which produce haploid gametes for sexual reproduction
-Spermatogenesis occurs in the testes, while oogenesis occurs in the ovaries.
-Spermatogenesis produces four functional sperm cells, while oogenesis produces one functional ovum and three nonfunctional polar bodies.
-Spermatogenesis begins at puberty and continues throughout life, while oogenesis begins before birth and ends at menopause.
-Spermatogenesis produces small, motile gametes, while oogenesis produces larger, nonmotile gametes
-Spermatogenesis results in the continuous production of gametes, while oogenesis results in the cyclical production of gametes
How does the hormone FSH affect the function of the ovaries?
-FSH stimulates the growth and development of ovarian follicles in the ovaries, which produce and secrete estrogen
How does the hormone LH affect the function of the ovaries?
-LH triggers ovulation, the release of a mature ovum from the ovary, and stimulates the corpus luteum, which produces and secretes progesterone and estrogen
How does the hormone FSH affect the function of the testes?
FSH stimulates the development of the seminiferous tubules in the testes and the production of sperm cells
How does the LH hormone affect the function of the testes?
-LH (luteinizing hormone) stimulates the Leydig cells in the testes to produce and secrete testosterone
Define the menstrual phase
first phase of the menstrual cycle which involves shedding of the functional layer of the endometrium. It occurs from day 1 to day 5 of the menstrual cycle. The hormone levels of estrogen and progesterone are low during this phase
Define the proliferative phase
the second phase of the menstrual cycle, which is characterized by the regeneration of the endometrium. It occurs from day 6 to day 14 of the menstrual cycle. During this phase, the hormone estrogen is produced by the developing follicles and it stimulates the growth and proliferation of the endometrium
Define the secretory phase
third phase of the menstrual cycle, which is characterized by the secretion of glycogen and other nutrients by the endometrial glands. It occurs from day 15 to day 28 of the menstrual cycle. During this phase, the hormone progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum, which is formed after ovulation. Progesterone stimulates the growth and secretion of the endometrial glands to prepare the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg
Define oocyte
an immature female gamete that develops within a follicle in the ovary
Define blastocyte
structure that forms early in embryonic development, consisting of a hollow ball of cells with an inner cell mass that will give rise to the embryo and an outer layer of cells that will form the placenta
Define zygote
a fertilized egg cell that results from the fusion of a sperm cell and an egg cell
What is the general function of the reproductive system?
The reproductive system is responsible for producing, transporting, and fertilizing gametes (sperm in males and eggs in females) to facilitate reproduction.
What is the scrotum?
a sac-like structure that houses the testes and helps regulate their temperature for proper sperm development
What are the testes?
the male gonads responsible for producing sperm and testosterone
What is the epididymis?
a tightly coiled tube where sperm mature and are stored until ejaculation
What is the ductus deferens?
a muscular tube that transports mature sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct
What are the seminal vesicles?
glands that produce and secrete seminal fluid, a nutrient-rich mixture that helps nourish and protect sperm
What is the prostate gland?
a gland that produces and secretes prostate fluid, which makes up a significant portion of semen and helps activate and protect sperm
What are the bulbourethral glands?
glands that produce and secrete a clear, viscous fluid that lubricates and neutralizes acidic urine in urethra prior to ejaculation
What is the urethra?
a tube that carries both urine and semen out of the body through the penis
General function of the male reproductive system:
The male reproductive system is responsible for producing and delivering sperm for reproduction.
What is the labia minora?
thin folds of skin located inside the labia majora; they protect the clitoris, vaginal opening, and urethral opening
What is the labia majora?
the outermost pair of skin folds, which protects the internal reproductive structures
What is the clitoris?
a small, highly sensitive erectile organ located near the anterior junction of the labia minora; its primary function is to provide sexual pleasure
What is the vagina?
the muscular tube that connects the uterus to the outside of the body; it is the site of sexual intercourse and childbirth
What are the ovaries?
paired organs that produce and release mature oocytes (eggs) for fertilization; they also produce hormones like estrogen and progesterone
What is the uterine(fallopian) tube?
a pair of tubes that extend from the ovaries to the uterus; they are the site of fertilization
What is the cervix?
the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina; it produces mucus that changes in consistency during the menstrual cycle to facilitate or prevent sperm from entering the uterus
What is the uterus?
the hollow muscular organ where a fertilized egg implants and develops into a fetus during pregnancy; it is lined with the endometrium, which thickens and sheds during the menstrual cycle
What is the hymen?
a thin membrane that partially covers the vaginal opening and may be stretched or torn during sexual activity or other physical activities
What are the seminiferous tubules?
site of spermatogenesis where the sperms are produced
What are interstitial cells?
they produce androgens, including testosterone, which helps in male development
What is the endometrium?
the inner lining of the uterus that undergoes cyclic changes during the menstrual cycle. It prepares to receive a fertilized egg
What is the myometrium?
the muscular wall of the uterus that contracts during labor
What is the functional layer of the uterus?
the layer of the endometrium that undergoes cyclic changes during the menstrual cycle
What is the basal layer of the uterus?
the layer of the endometrium that remains relatively constant and gives rise to the functional layer after each menstrual cycle
What is the ciliated epithelium of mucosa of the uterine(fallopian) tube?
The cilia lining the mucosa of the uterine tube help to propel the egg from the ovary towards the uterus. It is also the site of fertilization
Define semen
Semen is a fluid that contains sperm and other secretions that are released during ejaculation
Define gonad
A gonad is an organ that produces gametes, such as sperm or eggs
Define ejaculation
Ejaculation is the process of expelling semen from the male reproductive system.
Define erection
An erection is the physiological response of the penis to sexual stimulation, resulting in increased blood flow to the penis and the enlargement and hardening of the penis.
Define ovulation
Ovulation is the process by which a mature egg is released from an ovary, ready to be fertilized by sperm.
Define fertilization
the process of fusion between a sperm cell and an egg cell to form a single cell called a zygote
Define cleavage
a process of rapid cell division without cell growth that leads to the formation of a multicellular embryo
Define blastocyst
a hollow sphere of cells formed after the morula stage of cleavage that contains an inner cell mass (embryoblast) and an outer layer of cells (trophoblast)
Define inner cell mass(embryoblast)
the mass of cells inside the blastocyst that will develop into the embryo proper
Define trophoblast
the outer layer of cells in the blastocyst that will develop into the placenta and other extraembryonic membranes
Define gastrulation
the process in which the cells of the blastula rearrange themselves into three germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
Define chorion
the outermost extraembryonic membrane that develops from the trophoblast and forms part of the placenta
Define placenta
a temporary organ that connects the developing fetus to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and gas exchange
Define decidua basalis
the portion of the endometrium that lies beneath the implanted embryo and gives rise to part of the placenta
Define decidua capsularis
the portion of the endometrium that covers the implanted embryo, which is later pushed into the uterine cavity as the embryo grows
Define chorionic villus
finger-like projections that grow from the chorion and extend into the uterine lining to allow nutrient and gas exchange between the embryo/fetus and the mother.
