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Anatomy II > Exam 1 Study Guide > Flashcards

Exam 1 Study Guide Flashcards

1
Q

All cells, no matter what they do, are made of the same 4 building blocks:

A

carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids

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2
Q

Proteins consist of:

A

chain of amino acids

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3
Q

Nucleic acids provide

A

instructions for making proteins

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4
Q

Describe a catabolic reaction

A

hydrolysis of complex structures to simpler ones; aka breaking down reactions

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5
Q

Describe anabolic reactions

A

synthesis of large molecules from small ones; aka building reactions; ex: amino acids creating protein

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6
Q

What is cellular respiration?

A

catabolism of food fuels to the capture of energy to form ATP in cells;

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7
Q

What are the three processes of cellular respiration?

A

glycolysis
krebs cycle
oxidative phosphorylation

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8
Q

Describe glycolysis

A

-Input: glucose
-anaerobic
-occurs within cytosol
-used for quick energy(ie: pasta before race)
-FINAL PRODUCTS: 2 pyruvic acids, 2 NADH, 2 ATP

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9
Q

Describe the Krebs cycle

A

-occurs in mitochondrial matrix
-output of pyruvic acid from glycolysis and oxygen are the input for krebs cycle
-produces NADH and FADH for electron donors to drive oxidative phosphorylation
-FINAL PRODUCTS: 8 NADH , 2 FADH, 6 CO2, 2 ATP

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10
Q

Describe oxidative phosphorylation

A

-directly uses oxygen
-NADH and FADH deliver H+ atoms that combine with oxygen(final electron acceptor)to form water
-pumped H+ creates proton gradient(negative inside, positive outside),
-H+ is attracted to negative matrix inside membrane & diffuses back to matrix via ATP synthesis

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11
Q

What are the inputs and outputs for oxidative phosphorylation?

A

INPUTS: NADH & FADH(from glycolysis and Krebs cycle are electron donors, Oxygen as final electron acceptor creating water
OUTPUTS: ATP and H2O

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12
Q

Describe the absorptive state.

A

-anabolism exceeds catabolism
-nutrients pools coming in through food and building up stuff
-when there is food in stomach
-primarily controlled by insulin

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13
Q

Describe the post absorptive state.

A

-breaking down glycogen
-running on stored material
-Goal: maintain blood glucose between meals

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14
Q

What are the sources of blood glucose?

A
  1. glycogenolysis in liver
  2. glycogenolysis in skeletal muscle
  3. lipolysis in adipose tissues and liver
  4. catabolism of cellular protein
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15
Q

How is extra glucose stored?

A

-triglyceride synthesis
-glucose is easily converted to fat

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16
Q

Describe high density lipoproteins(HDLs)

A

-highest protein content
-H for healthy
-transfer excess cholesterol to liver to be broken down

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17
Q

Describe low density lipoproteins(LDLs)

A

-cholesterol rich
-L for lousy
-transport cholesterol to peripheral tissues for membranes, storage, etc

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18
Q

Describe body temperature

A

-body temp. reflects balance between heat production and heat loss
-core has highest temperature
-shell(skin) has lowest temperature
-regulated by nervous system

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19
Q

What are the four mechanisms of heat transfer?

A
  1. radiation: loss of heat by infrared rays
  2. conduction: transfer of heat by direct contact
  3. convection: transfer of heat to surrounding air
  4. evaporation: heat loss due to evaporation of water from body surfaces; aka sweating
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20
Q

What is insensible heat loss?

A

heat loss by simply existing

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21
Q

What is sensible heat loss?

A

when body temperature rises and sweating increases water vaporization

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22
Q

The endocrine system…

A

dumps hormones into the blood from the endocrine glands.

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23
Q

What are target cells?

A

tissues with receptors for specific hormone; if it has a receptor, it is a target cell

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24
Q

Can water soluble hormones enter the cell?

A

No, they bind to the plasma membrane and affect the target cell by triggering chain reactions inside cell; ex: hormones

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25
Q

Can lipid soluble hormones enter the cell?

A

Yes, lipid soluble hormones bind to DNA and directly activate genes; ex: steroid hormones

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26
Q

What is a gene?

A

DNA sequence that encodes a protein; all cells in the body have the same DNA

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27
Q

What controls hormones release by endocrine glands?

A

endocrine glands are stimulated to synthesize and release hormones in response to different stimuli

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28
Q

What are the three stimuli that stimulate endocrine glands?

A

-humoral stimuli
-neural stimuli
-hormonal stimuli

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29
Q

Humoral stimuli

A

changing blood levels of ions and nutrients stimulate secretion of hormones; aka: what’s going on in the blood?

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30
Q

Neural stimuli

A

nerve fibers stimulate hormone release; nervous system; ex: fight or flight stress response

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31
Q

Hormonal stimuli

A

hormones stimulate other endocrine organs to release their hormones; hormones bind to receive feedback mechanisms

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32
Q

Why do the electron transport chain complexes pump protons?

A

to create the electrochemical proton gradient

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33
Q

Endocrine glands secrete __________, which are recognized only by their ______ cells.

A

hormones; target

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34
Q

How do hormones work?

A

Hormones circulate in the blood, and only cells with receptors for that hormone are affected.

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35
Q

Hormones act at receptors in two ways:

A
  1. water soluble hormones
  2. lipid soluble hormones
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36
Q

What are second messengers?

A

intracellular chemical signals that connect plasma membrane events to internal metabolic machinery of cell

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37
Q

What are the two major lobes of the pituitary gland?

A

posterior pituitary lobe and anterior pituitary lobe

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38
Q

Describe the posterior pituitary lobe

A

contains neural tissue, stores hormones made by hypothalamus, which are oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone(ADH)

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39
Q

Describe the anterior pituitary lobe

A

-contain glandular tissue, makes hormones: GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, PRL

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40
Q

Where are the pituitary lobes located?

A

base of brain below hypothalamus(derived from hypothalamus)

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41
Q

All pituitary hormones activate…

A

cyclic AMP second messenger systems except GH

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42
Q

What is a result of antidiuretic hormone?

A

makes you retain water in body

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43
Q

Antidiuretic hormone is also called

A

vasopressin

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44
Q

What are the two posterior pituitary hormones?

A

oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone(ADH)

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45
Q

What are the six hormones produced in the anterior pituitary lobe

A

-growth hormones(GH)
-thyroid stimulating hormone(TSH)
-adrenocorticotropic hormone(ACTH)
-follicle stimulating hormone(FSH)
-luteinizing hormone(LH)
-prolactin(PRL)

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46
Q

Describe the pancreas

A

triangular typically behind stomach; has both exocrine and endocrine cells
-contains acinar cells and pancreatic islets

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47
Q

What are acinar cells?

A

Exocrine cells that produce enzyme rich juice for digestion

48
Q

What are pancreatic islets?

A

contain endocrine cells(alpha and beta)

49
Q

Alpha cells produce ________.

A

glucagon(puts glucose in blood

50
Q

Beta cells produce _______.

A

insulin(stimulates cells to take glucose out of blood)

51
Q

Insulin and glucagon from the _______ regulate ______ ______ levels.

A

pancreas; blood glucose

52
Q

________ stimulates pancreas to secrete more insulin. Activated by insulin

A

Osteocalcin

53
Q

What does insulin do and where does it come from?

A

from pancreas; activates glucose to be taken out of blood to be used for skeletal muscle(or anything needed); also enhances membrane transport of glucose into fat and muscle cells

54
Q

What stimulates insulin secretion?

A

-elevated blood levels of glucose and amino acids
-intestinal GIP and parasympathetic stimulation

55
Q

The absorptive state is primarily controlled by

A

insulin

56
Q

Diabetes mellitus is caused by

A

inadequate insulin production or abnormal insulin receptors

57
Q

Insulin triggers enzymes to

A

catalyze oxidation of glucose for ATP production-first priority

58
Q

What is the primary stimulus of insulin?

A

elevated blood glucose levels

59
Q

Type 1 diabetes is due to

A

the pancreas not making enough insulin

60
Q

Type 2 diabetes is due to

A

insulin resistance

61
Q

Describe leptin

A

hormone used for appetite control

62
Q

Describe resistin

A

insulin antagonist

63
Q

Describe adiponectin

A

enhances sensitivity to insulin

64
Q

What is an example of a second messenger?

A

cAMP

65
Q

Do lipid soluble hormones have receptors?

A

Yes, they have receptors in nucleus, thus binding to the DNA

66
Q

Where are oxytocin and ADH produced and secreted?

A

produced and by posterior pituitary lobe

67
Q

How are oxytocin and ADH similar in composition, yet different in function?

A

they have nearly identical molecular composition, but oxytocin is a strong stimulant of uterine contraction, while ADH prevents urine formation

68
Q

What is thyroid hormone made from?

A

T4 and T3; thyroid affect every cell in body; major metabolic hormone

69
Q

What is hematocrit?

A

the percent of blood volume that is RBCs

70
Q

What are erythrocytes?

A

red blood cells; biconcave discs with no organelles; full of hemoglobin

71
Q

What are the formed elements that make up blood?

A

erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets

72
Q

Hematopoietic stem cells can only turn into

A

blood cells

73
Q

Heme is

A

pigment bonded to each globin chain that gives blood red color

74
Q

Hemoglobin is

A

the bus for O2; binds reversible with oxygen

75
Q

High oxygen in blood causes

A

scarlet colored blood

76
Q

Low oxygen in blood causes

A

dark red blood

77
Q

Erythropoiesis is

A

red blood cell production

78
Q

Erythropoietin signals the

A

production of red blood cells

79
Q

Too few RBCs leads to

A

hypoxia

80
Q

Too many RBCs causes

A

increased blood viscosity

81
Q

Platelets are _____ _________ used for ______ _________.

A

cell fragments; blood clotting

82
Q

Platelets are derived from

A

megakaryoblasts

83
Q

Platelets stick to _______ ______ via plasma protein.

A

collagen fibers

84
Q

Hemostasis is

A

a series of reactions to stop bleeding

85
Q

What are the three steps to hemostasis?

A
  1. vascular spasm(restricts blood flow)
  2. platelet plug formation(adhere to collagen fibers)
  3. coagulation(clot)
86
Q

Thromboembolic disorder causes

A

undesired clot formation

87
Q

Bleeding disorders cause

A

abnormalities that prevent normal clot formation

88
Q

What is fibrinogen?

A

4% of plasma proteins; produced by liver; forms fibrin threads of blood clot

89
Q

Describe fibrin

A

causes plasma to become gel like trap for formed elements; used to form structural basis of clot

90
Q

Thrombin strings _________ to make _____ mesh.

A

fibrinogen; fibrin

91
Q

Prothrombin(inactive) is cut to form _______

A

thrombin(active)

92
Q

No prothrombin=

A

no clotting

93
Q

Plasmin is a

A

fibrin digesting enzyme

94
Q

Antigens of ABO and Rh blood groups cause

A

transfusion reactions

95
Q

What blood type is known as the universal donor?

A

O

96
Q

What blood type is known as the universal recipient?

A

AB

97
Q

Blood type B can only receive blood type __?

A

B and O

98
Q

Blood type A can only receive blood type __?

A

A and O

99
Q

Blood type O has what antibodies?

A

anti a and anti b

100
Q

Blood is composed of

A

plasma, Buffy coat, and erythrocytes

101
Q

The Buffy coat contains

A

leukocytes(WBCs) and platelets

102
Q

Which blood cells are considered the only complete cells?

A

white blood cells

103
Q

Red blood cells are dedicated to

A

respiratory gas transport

104
Q

White blood cells are used to

A

preventing infection; immune defense

105
Q

Leukocytosis is

A

the high WBC count over 11,000(normal response to infection)

106
Q

Leukocytes can leave capillaries via

A

diapedesis

107
Q

Diapedesis is

A

leaving blood stream to migrate to sight of wound looking to defend

108
Q

What are the types of leukocytes based on abundance in blood

A
  1. neutrophils
  2. lymphocytes
  3. monocytes
  4. eosinophils
  5. basophils
109
Q

T cells and B cells…

A

mediate immunity

110
Q

What is plasma?

A

non living fluid matrix that suspends the formed elements

111
Q

Most blood cells originate in the

A

red bone marrow

112
Q

Why is iron important in the blood?

A

necessary for erythropoiesis

113
Q

What type of blood can someone with type O receive?

A

O, bc they have A and B antibodies

114
Q

Why do patients with leukemia frequently have anemia and bleeding problems?

A

Those w leukemia have an overproduction of WBCs rather than RBCs and platelets.

115
Q

Anemia is the cause of

A

abnormally low O2 carrying capacity

Anatomy II (10 decks)

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