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PSYC 305 > L8/CH16/CH17 > Flashcards

L8/CH16/CH17 Flashcards

1
Q

Culture

A

distinctive customs, values, beliefs, knowledge, art, and language of a society or community that are passed on between generations and the basis for everyday behaviors and practices

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2
Q

Cultural variations

A

physical, psychological, behavioral, or attitudinal within-group similarities and between-group differences

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3
Q

Cultural identity

A

a person’s sense of belonging to a particular culture or group

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4
Q

How is cultural identity formed?

A

internalizing the beliefs, values, norms, and social practices of one’s culture

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5
Q

Sex

A

biological categorization of people as female, male, or intersex

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6
Q

Gender

A

social and cultural meanings/interpretations of the different sex categories, including commonly associated attributes (e.g. woman/man, feminine/masculine)

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7
Q

Gender identity

A

a person’s deeply-felt inherent sense of being a man, woman, or alternative gender that may not correspond with sex (e.g. cisgender, trans, queer)

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8
Q

Gender expression

A

a person’s presentation and expressed behavior that communicate aspects of their gender or gender role

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9
Q

Sexual orientation

A

a person’s sexual or romantic attraction to others based on their sex and/or gender

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10
Q

Sexual identity

A

a person’s identity as it pertains to their sexual orientation (e.g. straight, lesbian, gay, bi)

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11
Q

Role of genes in determining same-sex sexual orientation

A

multiple genes each play a relatively small role, suggesting that sexual orientation and identity are a natural variation of human experience

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12
Q

Factors affecting gender identity

A

environmental and biological factors; not a matter of choice or confusion (e.g. trans children are statistically indistinguishable from cis children of the same gender identity)

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13
Q

What has low gender identity clarity been associated with among trans?

A

suicidal ideation

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14
Q

What has ambiguity about sexual identity been associated with in gay and straight women?

A

alcohol misuse and suicidal ideation

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15
Q

What has low cultural identity clarity been associated with in indigenous youth?

A

low subjective well-being and low self-esteem; suicidal ideation; physical and relational aggression

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16
Q

Intersectionality

A

study of intersecting, overlapping social identities and labels, and related systems of discrimination and oppression

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17
Q

3 problems with the historical study of sex differences

A

reliance on sex/gender binaries and cisgender people; possible exaggeration of differences, stereotype reinforcement; insufficient attention to intersectionality

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18
Q

How are sex differences measured?

A

effect size or d-statistic from meta-analyses

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19
Q

Effect size or d-statistic

A

used to express each sex differences in standard deviation units then averaged across studies to give an objective assessment of the difference

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20
Q

Small, medium, vs large effect size

A

.20, .50, .80

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21
Q

Positive vs negative effect size

A

men are higher; women are higher

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22
Q

Sex difference in extraversion

A

men are higher in assertiveness (similar to agency) while women are higher in enthusiasm (similar to communion)

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23
Q

Sex difference in neuroticism

A

females are higher in volatility and withdrawal; moderate difference

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24
Q

Sex difference in openness and conscientiousness

A

no significant difference

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25
Q

Sex difference in agreeableness

A

females are higher in compassion and politeness; holds true across cultures

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26
Q

Sex difference in nurturance

A

females consistently score higher in all aspects of agreeableness (specifically trust and tender-mindedness), warmth (extraversion), and empathy

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27
Q

Nurturance

A

tendency to care for others

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28
Q

Sex difference in aggressiveness

A

males across cultures show higher aggression by age 4 or 5, are higher in the dark triad and antisocial personality disorder

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29
Q

Sex difference in overt vs relational aggression

A

boys show more overt aggression while girls show more relational aggression

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30
Q

Sex differences in emotionality

A

females across cultures report experiencing more positive and negative emotions early in life, rumination, and 2-3x more depression after puberty

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31
Q

Masculinity-femininity dimension

A

the possession of psychological and physical attributes traditionally associated with men or women

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32
Q

Androgyny

A

the possession of high levels of both masculine and feminine attributes

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33
Q

Bem sex-role inventory

A

the extent to which one fulfills sex role expectations and sees the world through gendered lens

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34
Q

How are masculinity and femininity studied today?

A

instrumentality/agency and expressiveness/communion

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35
Q

Unmitigated agency

A

focus on the self to the exclusion of others; associated with problems in relationships and psychological well-being

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36
Q

Where do problems in unmitigated agency stem from?

A

unwillingness to attend to relationships and negative view of others

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37
Q

What is unmitigated agency correlated with?

A

hegemonic and toxic masculinity; dark traits

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38
Q

Unmitigated communion

A

focus on others to the exclusion of the self; a negative form of femininity

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39
Q

Where do problems in unmitigated communion stem from?

A

tendency to subjugate one’s own needs; dependence on others for esteem

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40
Q

Gender schemas

A

cognitive orientations that lead people to process information through a sex-linked perspective; shaped through learning and socialization early in life

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41
Q

Gender schema theory

A

how individuals become gendered in society and how gender stereotypes are maintained over time

42
Q

Gender stereotypes

A

beliefs about how men and women differ or are supposed to differ in contrast to what the actual differences are

43
Q

3 components of gender stereotypes

A

cognitive (how we form social categories); affective; behavioral

44
Q

2 real consequences of gender stereotypes

A

prejudiced behavior and discrimination on the basis of gender

45
Q

Sandra Bem’s legacy

A

suggested that society should decrease the use of gender dichotomy and try to be gender-aschematic

46
Q

Socialization theory

A

males are reinforced by parents, teachers, and the media for being masculine, and females for being feminine

47
Q

Social learning theory

A

children learn by observing and modelling the behaviors of same-sex others, which provide a guide to what is masculine or feminine (can happen without reinforcement)

48
Q

Social role theory

A

sex differences arise because males and females are distributed differently into different occupational and family roles

49
Q

2 evidences for influence of socialization in gender stereotypes

A

boys and girls are treated differently (e.g. toys, chores) across cultures; exposure to counter-stereotypical role models can influence aspirations (but Swedish teenagers still choose gender-typical careers)

50
Q

Findings about competitiveness in matrilineal vs patrilineal societies

A

girls are less competitive than boys only in the patriarchal society while no difference was found in the matrilineal society

51
Q

Between-sex differences on toy preferences

A

at age 1, male infants were more likely to look at cars while female infants were more likely to look at dolls

52
Q

Within-sex differences on toy preferences

A

at age 1, both males and females preferred to look at dolls and the color red over blue

53
Q

Hormonal differences after puberty

A

little similarity in levels of circulating testosterone (males have about 10x more)

54
Q

What are sex differences in testosterone linked with?

A

traditional sex differences in behavior (e.g. aggression, dominance, career choice, sexual desire, depression, empathy)

55
Q

What are estrogen levels linked with?

A

empathy and oxytocin secretion (affects tendency to approach and trust other people)

56
Q

Influence of evolutionary pressures on sex differences

A

sexes are predicted to differ only in domains in which people are recurrently faced with different adaptive problems (e.g. mating, sexuality)

57
Q

Adaptive problems

A

problems that must be solved to survive and reproduce

58
Q

Integrated theory of sex differences

A

takes all levels of analysis (socialization, hormonal, evolutionary) into account because they’re all compatible

59
Q

Most supported cause for sex differences in personality

A

socialization

60
Q

Evoked culture

A

differences in physical environments lead to different social and psychological adaptations among different groups of people

61
Q

3 examples of evoked culture that have shaped personality

A

food variance, economic livelihood, pathogen prevalence

62
Q

Effect of food variance on personality

A

differences in egalitarianism/cooperation (e.g. high food variance leads to cooperative sharing)

63
Q

Effect of economic livelihood on personality

A

differences in honor (e.g. cultures that use animal herding for subsistence endorse violence for protection and in response to insults)

64
Q

Effect of pathogen prevalence on personality

A

differences in the big 5 traits (e.g. more prevalence leads to more introversion, less openness, and more restricted sexuality)

65
Q

What 2 behaviors can increase likelihood of pathogen exposure?

A

deviating from cultural norms; not strictly obeying authority (parasite stress hypothesis)

66
Q

Result of deviation from cultural norms

A

cultural differences in conformity

67
Q

Conformity

A

tendency to adapt behavior in response to unspoken group pressure

68
Q

Result of not strictly obeying authority

A

cultural differences in authoritarianism, authoritarian governance, and conservative political ideologies

69
Q

Authoritarianism

A

blind allegiance to conventional ideas; respect for submission to authority; belief in aggression toward those who disagree or who are different

70
Q

Transmitted culture

A

ideas, values, attitudes, and beliefs that are communicated from one person to another (e.g. cultural orientation, self-construal, self-enhancement)

71
Q

2 kinds of cultural orientation

A

individualism and collectivism

72
Q

Individualism

A

focus on uniqueness, independence, agency; values identity and self-enhancement; independent self-construal

73
Q

Collectivism

A

focus on relationships and communion; values unity and selflessness; interdependent self-construal

74
Q

Who fueled individualism in the west and collectivism in the east?

A

Descartes; Confucius

75
Q

2 dimensions in the expanded model of cultural orientation

A

individualistic-collectivistic; inequality/status-equality

76
Q

Vertical individualism

A

concern for individual rights and freedom; driven to achieve higher status over others (e.g. USA)

77
Q

Vertical collectivism

A

high interdependence but also high tendency for competition/comparison; authoritarianism/fascism typical (e.g. China)

78
Q

Horizontal individualism

A

concern for individual rights and freedom but no desire for dominance (e.g. Sweden)

79
Q

Horizontal collectivism

A

high level of conformity/interdependence but no submission to authority (e.g. Israeli Kibbutz)

80
Q

Bicultural orientation

A

having both strong individualistic and collectivistic orientations in one’s knowledge structures and valuie systems; often results from acculturation

81
Q

2 ways in which cultural orientation has been studied

A

value orientation and self-concept

82
Q

Value orientation

A

focuses on individual’s beliefs about the importance of personal vs collective goals

83
Q

Self-concept

A

focuses on self-construal involving separateness vs social embeddedness (i.e. extent to which one is defined independently or interdependently of others)

84
Q

3 kinds of self-construal

A

independent, interdependent, metapersonal

85
Q

Independent self-construal

A

self-concept in which self-definition is based on internal attributes (e.g. traits, abilities, values, preferences); associated with individualism

86
Q

Interdependent self-construal

A

self-concept in which self-definition is based on relationships with others and social embeddedness; associated with collectivism

87
Q

Metapersonal self-construal

A

self-definition based on unified connection and fundamental interconnectedness with all living things (i.e. at one with the universe)

88
Q

Result of a metapersonal self-construal

A

biospheric value orientation (inherent value of the environment beyond the rights of any one species); pro-environmental behaviors

89
Q

Collectivistic independence

A

involves a collectivistic value orientation and an independent self-construal

90
Q

Largest cultural difference in the big 5 traits

A

extraversion (NAs, australians, europeans score slightly higher than asians and africans)

91
Q

Cultural universals

A

features of personality that are common to people in all cultures (i.e. human nature)

92
Q

3 cultural universals

A

beliefs about women and men; emotional expression; big 5 traits

93
Q

Which 7 countries/languages showed evidence of the HEXACO model?

A

dutch, french, german, hungarian, italian, korean, polish

94
Q

4 trait dimensions found in Chinese personality (and their corresponding big 5 traits)

A

dependability (neuroticism/instability); social potency (extraversion); individualism/accommodation (agreeableness); interpersonal relatedness (none)

95
Q

2 principal factors that reflect socioecological characteristics common in small-scale societies

A

prosociality (combination of agreeableness and extraversion) and industriousness

96
Q

2 key dimensions used for evaluating personality traits of others across cultures

A

warmth/trustworthiness; competence/dominance

97
Q

Agency

A

status, need for power, traditional masculinity, instrumentality, industriousness, individualism, independence, dominance/competence

98
Q

Communion

A

love/nurturance, need for intimacy, traditional femininity, expressiveness, prosociality, collectivism, interdependence, warmth/trust

99
Q

Alternative labels for masculinity and femininity

A

instrumentality/expressiveness; agency/communion; competence/warmth

100
Q

Hegemonic masculinity

A

traditional and culturally idealized notions of men as successful, self-reliant, socially dominant, tough, competitive, lacking in sensitivity, fearful or avoidant of being perceived as feminine

101
Q

Gender dysphoria

A

one’s sex or gender assigned at birth causes distress or impairment in one or more life domains

102
Q

Self-enhancement

A

tendency to describe and present oneself using positive or socially valued attributes

PSYC 305 (10 decks)

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