L2 Research Method

Question 1

Scientific Approach to Behavior (assumption and method)

Answer 1

1. Assumption
   - behaviors/emotions/thoughts are governed by discernible laws or principles
   - psychologist: to verify these laws (PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISM)
2. Scientific method
   - a system of gathering data so that bias and errors in measurement are minimized

Question 2

goal of scientific studies

Answer 2

1. Measure & Describe
   e.g. before testing if women are more emotional than men, we need some means to measure “emotionality”
2. understand & predict
   - the relationship between certain variables (any measurable conditions)
3. Apply & Change
   - to promote well-being (e.g. to let both genders understand each other more!)

Question 3

what is theory and hypothesis

Answer 3

1. Theory - explains, organizes and predicts the variables
   e.g. women are more emotional than men
2. hypothesis
   - derived from experiences, observations & existing theories
   e.g. women are more likely to exhibit depressions

Question 4

5 steps scientific method

Answer 4

1. formulate hypothesis (draw a testable statement or prediction, either be verified or falsified)
2. design the design
   - select appropriate research methods
3. gather data
   - try to have a representative sample
4. analyze the data and draw the conclusion
   - try to be objective
5. report the findings
   - try to be precise and replicable

Question 5

population vs sample

Answer 5

1. population: entire set of individuals to which generalizations will be made based on a sample
2. sample: subset of a population selected as participants in an experiment

Question 6

types of psychological research

Answer 6

1. experiment approach: Experiments
2. Non-experimental / descriptive approach:
   - correlation studies
   - survey
   - naturalistic observations
   - case studies

Question 7

concepts of experiment

Answer 7

1. under a well-controlled setting, the researchers change or control something to observe any changes accordingly
2. detection of cause-and-effect relationships
3. contains an experimental group and a control group

Question 8

Independent variable vs dependent variable

Answer 8

1. IV: its condition influences another variable
   - CAUSE
2. DV: its condition is influenced by another variable
   - EFFECT, e.g. coffee enhances attention

Question 9

Concepts: Hypothesis and Operational Definition

Answer 9

1. Hypothesis
   - how does the IV affect DV
   - e.g. coffee enhances attention
   IV (cause): coffee
   DV (effect): attention
2. Operational definition
   - what types of measure we use to reflect that variable
   - IV: what coffee do you use?
   - DV: what measure is used to reflect attention? time spent on a speed test?

Question 10

Concept: Manipulation

Answer 10

1. experimental approaches
2. manipulation
   - how do you create the “cause”in the experimental condition
   - two groups are alike, except they differ in the “manipulation”
   EXPERIMENTAL: with the manipulation
   CONTROL: without the manipulation

Question 11

Concept: Confounding variable

Answer 11

1. experimental approaches
2. confounding variables
   - variables that are not IV (testing) but may still affect the DV (e.g. some participants have better attention ability)
   - solutions
   RANDOMIZATION!
   
   • all participants have equal chance to be assigned to any condition or group

Question 12

“See Aggression, Do Aggression” - Bobo dolls experiments

Answer 12

1. Observational Learning (modelling)
2. IV: Watching a model acting aggressively or not
   - two conditions:
   
   • experimental conditions: an aggressive model
   • control: a non-aggressive model
3. DV: aggression level
   - e.g. number and duration of hits on the bobo doll etc
4. participants - young children (age 3-6)
   5.Hypothesis
   - an aggressive model vs not (more aggressive in 1st >2nd condition)
5. Procedure
   - children sat in the corner of a room and watched an adult model playing for 10 mins
   
   • in experimental group, the model acted aggressively to the Bobo doll
   • in control group, the model acted quietly in the room and ignored the Bobo doll
     - each child was then left alone in a room for 20 mins
   • their behaviors were recorded
6. result
   - Experimental condition > control condition

Question 13

Male toilet vs personal space invasion

Answer 13

1. question: does personal space invasion affect men’s toileting
2. hypothesis: men with shorter personal distance with strangers would be “disturbed” in the toileting behaviors
3. Operational definitions
   - IV: Personal Space invasion: distance of the target participants with the strangers
   - DV: toileting behaviors
   
   • micturition delay” time between participant unzip his zipper and urination began
   • micturition persistence: time between the onset and completion of urination
4. conditions:
   - close distance
   - moderate distance
   - control
   ( experimenter did the time keeping in stall)
5. results
   - persistence: close < moderate < control
   - delay of onset: close > moderate > control
6. confounding variables
   - amount of urine in the bladder, how much water they drink etc

Question 14

Non-experimental approach

Answer 14

1. correlation
   - two variables are related to each other
   e.g. education level and income / physical attractiveness and social popularity / stress and depression / GDP and happiness

Question 15

Correlation

Answer 15

1. Two variables are related to each other
2. correlational coefficient (r): indicates the degree of relationship between two variables
   - direction: sign (+ and -)
   - magnitude / strength: absolute value
   
   • +1 or -1 Strong relationship
   • 0 no relationship
3. there exists correlation that actually do not make sense
   - association but not explanation / causation

Question 16

Descriptive research

Answer 16

1. survey
   - seeking people’s responses to a prepared set of items or questionnaires
2. naturalistic observation
   - un-intrusively observe people’s behaviours
   e.g. participant observation
3. benefits of a psychology case study
   - allows for in-depth investigation of one person, group or event
   - the information from one case can be generalized to others
   - lets researchers examine something impossible to conduct via experiment

Question 17

example of a survey: no touching

Answer 17

1. procedure
   - 1,300 men and women were asked the questions where they were comfortable being touched and by whom,
   - regardless of nationality, closeness of the relationship correlated with the range of areas that can be touched

Question 18

summary of different methods

Answer 18

1. experiment
   - pros
   
   • precise control on variables
   • cause-and-effect
     - cons
   • too artificial
   • ethical concern
2. survey
   - pros
   
   • gather data easily from large sample
     - cons
   • self-report data often unreliable
3. naturalistic observation
   - pros
   
   • good start when little is known
     - cons
   • cannot explain why certain behaviors are observed
4. case study
   - pros
   
   • suitable for study certain phenomena ( e.g. clinical)
     - cons
   • clinical samples often unrepresentative

Question 19

biases and errors

Answer 19

1. sampling error (most kinds of design)
   - unrepresentative sample
2. placebo effect (in participants)
   - participants have false expectations on empty or fake treatment
3. experimenter bias (in researchers)
   - experimenters hold expectations or preferences on the results
4. social desirability bias
   - participants give socially-approved answers
5. responses set
   - participants choose all the same answer

Question 20

unrepresentative sample

Answer 20

1. proportion between each sector in population and sample is not similar (or the same)

Question 21

Solutions of bias and errors

Answer 21

1. DOUBLE-BLIND controlled experiment
2. both experimenters and participants are kept unknown of the group arrangement

Question 22

Research ethics

Answer 22

1. informed consent
   - participants should be given full information about the study before they decide to participate
   - participation should be voluntary and any withdrawal during the study should be allowed
2. minimal risk
   - the potential of possible harms to the participants have to be minimized (to those you encounter in normal day activities)
3. deception and debriefing
   - if the participants are deceived of anything in the study, they must be debriefed afterwards
4. confidentiality
   - all information obtained int he study are highly confidential and is restricted to the use for research purposes