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Biology 6th Form OCR A (missing exchange systems) > Kidneys, Urine and diagnosis: > Flashcards

Kidneys, Urine and diagnosis: Flashcards

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1
Q

How to tell the difference between the renal vein and renal artery?

A

The renal vein has a larger diameter than the renal artery.

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2
Q

What are the main functions of the kidney?

A

Excretion, osmoregulation, production of erythrocytes.

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3
Q

What are the plectrum shaped regions of the medulla called?

A

Renal pyramids.

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4
Q

What is the peripheral region of the kidney called?

A

Renal cortex

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5
Q

What is the name of the central part of the kidney leading to the renal blood vessels and is where the ureter joins the kidney.?

A

Renal Pelvis.

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6
Q

Purpose of the renal artery?

A

To supply oxygenated blood (containing urea and salts) to the kidneys

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7
Q

What is the purpose of the renal vein?

A

Carries deoxygenated blood (that has urea and excess salts removed) away from the kidneys.

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8
Q

Role of the bladder?

A

To temporarily store urine.

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9
Q

Fibrous Capsule:

A

Outerlayer of the kidney that protects the kidney from damage.

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10
Q

What is a nephron?

A

A specialised filtration unit in both the medulla and cortex that produces urine.

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11
Q

Which parts of a nephron are located in the cortex?

A

The glomerulus, bowman’s capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, distal convoluted tubule.

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12
Q

Which parts of a nephron are located in the medulla?

A

Loop of henle and the collecting duct.

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13
Q

What is the vasa recta?

A

Network of capillaries surrounding the loop of henle.

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14
Q

What is the afferent arteriole?

A

The arteriole that carries blood to glomerulus.

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15
Q

What is the efferent arteriole?

A

The arteriole that carries blood away from the glomerulus into a network of capillaries that carry blood alongside the nephron -> reabsorb water and useful substances and transport hormones.

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16
Q

What blood vessel carries blood away from the network of capillaries surrounding a nephron?

A

The renal vein.

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17
Q

How will blood in the renal vein differ to the blood in the renal artery?

A

Less urea, less water and ions, less glucose (used in respiration), more carbon dioxide, mineral ions restored to optimum levels.

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18
Q

Function of the loop of Henle:

A

To establish a water potential gradient down into the medulla so when urine travels through the collecting duct, water can diffuse by osmosis into the surrounding tissues.

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19
Q

What two components of the nephron are impacted by ADH:

A

The Distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct.

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20
Q

Describe ultrafiltration in the bowman’s capsule:

A

Small molecules (including amino acids, water, glucose, urea and inorganic ions) are filtered out of the blood capillaries of the glomerulus and into the bowman’s capsule to form filtrate.

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21
Q

Describe selective reabsorption in the PCT:

A

Useful molecules are reabsorbed from the filtrate and returned to the blood as the filtrate flows.

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22
Q

Structure of the bowman’s capsule and glomerulus.

A

The glomerulus consists of a knot of fenestrated capillaries, which are perforated by tiny fenestrations. \the inner epithelium of the capsule are lined by podocyte cells, which have cellular extension called pedicels that wrap around the blood vessels of the capillaries. Between the podocytes and capillaries is a layer called the basement membrane. The high hydrostatic of the blood size selectively pushes nutrients through the fenestrations and the gaps between podocytes.

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23
Q

Basement membrane:

A

A mesh between the glomerulus and the bowman’s capsule -> which functions as the sole filtration barrier within the nephron.

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24
Q

During ultrafiltration, what three layers do molecules pass through?

A

The capillary endothelium, basement membrane and the bowman’s capsule epithelium.

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25
Q

Compare the water potential of the blood plasma of the glomerulus compared to the filtrate:

A

The water potential of the blood plasma is higher than the filtrate. Therefore blood flows through the glomerulus and there is an overall movement of water from the glomerulus down the water potential gradient into the bowman’s capsule.

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26
Q

Glomerular Filtration Rate:

A

The volume of blood filtered through the kidneys in a given time.

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27
Q

How pressure affects water potential in the glomerulus:

A

Afferent arteriole is wider than the efferent arteriole, bottle necking the blood, causing an increase in water potential, as the water is pushed through the fenestrated capillaries.

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28
Q

How solute concentration affects water potential in the glomerulus:

A

The basement membrane allows for most solutes to filter into the bowman’s capsule. The plasma proteins are too big to exit, keeping the solute concentration of the blood higher, decreasing the water potential of the blood plasma.

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29
Q

Why is it important the solute concentration of the blood plasma decreases the capillary’s water potential?

A

To prevent too much water from exiting the blood and impacting the function of the kidneys.

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30
Q

Describe how the cells of the proximal convoluted tubule are adapted to their function:

A
  • Microvilli - Increased SA:vol ratio
  • Co-transporter - Actively moved through protein passively moves others
  • Tightly packed - no “leaking” - ensure selective reabsorption.
  • High number of mitochondrion - Active transport.
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31
Q

Selective Reabsorption:

A
  • Many substances filtered out of the glomerulus need to be kept in the body.
  • These substances are reabsorbed.
  • Takes place in Proximal Convoluted Tubule.
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32
Q

Blood in efferent arteriole:

A

Very little plasma -> lost water , inorganic ions and solutes in glomerulus.

33
Q

Basal Membranes:

A

Cell membranes of PCT epithelial cells, closest to the capillaries of the vasa recta.

34
Q

Purpose of Sodium Potassium pump in the Basal Membrane:

A

Actively pumps Na+ ions from epithelial cells into the blood -> lowers Na+ conc. in epithelial cells -> Allows for Na+ to diffuse into the epithelial cells from the Filtrate.

35
Q

What is the purpose of Na+ ions in selective reabsorption?

A

Na+ acts as a co-transporter of other solutes, pulling them from the filtrate into the epithelial cells and blood.

36
Q

How much glucose is reabsorbed by a healthy person’s PCT?

A

100%

37
Q

What happens to the water potential of the filtrate as solutes are selectively reabsorped out of it?

A

The water potential of filtrate increases and water potential of the blood decreases. The water potential gradient allows for water to diffuse into the blood by osmosis.

38
Q

Descending limb of the loop of Henle:

A
  • Upper Part- Impermeable to water

- Lower Part- Permeable to water - Water leaves by osmosis.

39
Q

Ascending limb of the loop of Henle:

A
  • Upper Part - Na+ actively pumped out into the tissue fluid and Cl- follows
  • Lower Part - Very permeable to Na+ and Cl- -> exit by diffusion
  • Fluid in ascending limb becomes more dilute -> increasing water potential.
40
Q

Purpose of the Loop of Henle:

A

To create a high solute concentration in the tissue fluid to maintain a water potential gradient across the collecting duct.

41
Q

Importance of Loop of Henle being counter current:

A

Allows for the continuous pumping out of solutes into the surrounding tissues to further steepen the water potential gradient.

42
Q

Overhydration:

A
  • Body fluid becomes hypotonic
  • excessive quantities of clear urine
  • Cell swelling due to osmotic pressure -> cell lysis and tissue damage
  • Headaches and disrupted nerve function
  • Can lead to seizures, coma and death
43
Q

Dehydration:

A
  • Body fluids hypertonic
  • Thirst and small volumes of conc. urnine
  • Lower blood pressure -> increased heart rate
  • Lethargy and inability to manage body temp
  • Seizures, brain damage, and death
44
Q

Name the shape of a dehydrated cell:

A

Crenated (shriveled cell)

45
Q

Name the shape of an isotonic cell:

A

biconcave

46
Q

Where are osmoreceptors located?

A

The hypothalamus

47
Q

ADH action (depth):

A

ADH binds to receptors on the basal membrane of a DCT epithelial cell. -> Triggers a cAMP second messenger pathway -> activated protein kinases stimulate the synthesis of signal vesicles covered in aquaporins -> then phosphorylated to trigger vesicles to fuse with the luminal membranes.

48
Q

Purpose of ADH:

A

To increase the water permeability of the luminal membranes of the collecting duct.

49
Q

How would increased ADH production affect urine:

A

The urine would be more concentrated and have a smaller volume, because more water would have been reabsorped into the blood.

50
Q

Osmoregulation is an example of what type of response:

A

A negative feedback response

51
Q

The presence of glucose in urine could indicate what?

A

Person’s homeostatic control of glucose (diabetes)

52
Q

The presence of ketones in urine could indicate what?

A

Diabetes mellitus

53
Q

The presence of proteins in urine could indicate what?

A
  • High blood pressure
  • Kidney infection
  • Issues with filtration mechanisms
54
Q

The presence of +ve nitrate ions in urine could indicate what?

A

Bacterial infection of the urinary tract.

55
Q

What hormone is detected for during a pregnancy test?

A

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)

56
Q

How do pregnancy tests work?

A

The person urinates on an absorbent sample pad, where hCG will bind to monoclonal antibodies -> these antibodies will move up the pad to the result window -> the mobile monoclonal antibodies that have bound to hCG will then bind to immobile antibodies (dyed) and form a line. Antibodies not bound to hCG will continue to move up the pad and will reach another layer of fixed antibodies. -> this line indicates the test is functioning when the result is +Ve or -Ve.

57
Q

Testing for anabolic steroids:

A

-Urine sample undergoes gas chromatography (vaporised with a known solvent and passed along a tube which absorbs the gases and produces a chromatograph) or mass spectrometry.

58
Q

Why would an athlete take anabolic steroids?

A

To mimic the action of the male see hormone testosterone -> cause the rapidly increase muscle mass by stimulating protein synthesis.

59
Q

Drug testing Urine:

A

Drug traces (breakdown products) can be found in urine. An immunoassay (contains monoclonal antibodies) binds to drug or products -> indicates presence. If present gas chromatography os mass spectrometry will be used to confirm the identity of the drug.

60
Q

Possible causes of kidney failure:

A 
Blood loss
High blood pressure (damage epithelial cells or bowman's capsule's basement membrane)
Diabetes
Drug abuse
Genetic Conditions
Infection
Kidney Disease
61
Q

Kidney Diseases:

A

Conditions that incapacitate the kidney’s ability to filter waste products from the blood.

62
Q

Glomerular Filtration Rate:

A

If GFR decreases it can indicate the filtration isn’t operating correctly and there will be a build-up of toxin in the blood.

63
Q

Effect of Excess K2+ ions in the blood:

A

Decrease frequency of SA node impulses -> leading to arrhythmia and cardiac arrest.

64
Q

effect of excess Na+ ions in the blood:

A

Disorientation, muscle spasms, higher blood pressure and weakness.

65
Q

How is GFR measured?

A

Creatine levels in the blood. Increased levels indicate a lower GFR and worse kidney function.

66
Q

What is creatine?

A

A breakdown product in muscles. (Phosphocreatine breakdown)

67
Q

What factors can affect GFR?

A

Gender and age.

68
Q

How does gender affect GFR?

A

Male sex hormone testosterone increases muscle mass therefore men would usually have higher creatine muscles.

69
Q

How many kidneys can a human survive with?

A

one functioning kidney

70
Q

What are the two forms of kidney failure treatment?

A

Renal dialysis and kidney transplants.

71
Q

Peritoneal Dialysis:

A
  • Uses the natural dialysis membranes of the peritoneum
  • Utilises facilitated diffusion and active transport.
  • Dialysate enters through an abdominal catheter.
  • Urea and waste products diffuse out of blood.
  • Dialysate removed and replaced.
  • Fluid is then drained and discarded until blood needs balancing again.
72
Q

Haemodialysis:

A

Blood is removed from an artery and pumper through a dialyzer.
The dialyzer contains a partially permeable membrane and has dialysis fluid which removes waste to maintain an appropriate concentration gradient for diffusion.

73
Q

Comparison between differences of peritoneal and haemo dialysis:

A

Haemodialysis requires dialysate fluid to be constantly refreshed
Haemodialysis maintains a conc. grad
Haemodialysis uses counter-current flow
Haemodialysis removes more waste.
Haemodialysis is immobile
Haemodialysis uses diffusion only.
Haemodialysis takes longer however occurs less often

74
Q

Advantages of Kidney Transplant

A

The patient has a better quality of life.
Diet is much less restricted.
Less expensive
Long-term solution.

75
Q

Disadvantages of Kidney transplant:

A

Donors won’t have the same antigens and-so immunosuppressant drugs must be taken to prevent the organ from being rejected.
Not enough donors
risk of rejection
Organs must be replaced around every 9-10 years.

76
Q

What is the purpose of the partially permeable membrane in the dialyzer?

A

Separates the patients blood from the dialysis fluid and provide a surface for the diffusion of useful substance into the blood and harmful substances out of the blood.

77
Q

What are the relative concentrations of solutes in dialysate compared to blood?

A
  • Same conc of glucose to normal blood glucose level

- Same conc of salt to ideal blood

78
Q

Why must the dialysate be constantly refreshed:

A

To prevent the movement of waste products in the the dialysate decreasing its water potential and causing water to leave the blood.

79
Q

What drug is used during haemodialysis and what is its purpose?

A

Heparin -> to prevent blood clotting (anticoagulant) -> prevents the formation of blood clots during dialysis

Biology 6th Form OCR A (missing exchange systems) (27 decks)

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